Posthuman

The theoretical concept of a posthuman refers to possible biomedical enhancements and/or biotechnological advancements that could allow human beings to develop traits and abilities considered superhuman. One widely accepted definition of the term was forwarded by the renowned Swedish philosopher Nick Bostrom (1973–) in 2006.

According to Bostrom, a posthuman being possesses at least one inherent capacity that significantly exceeds the maximum human capacity that can be achieved without using outside technology. Bostrom defines three types of basic capacity: healthspan, cognition, and emotion. According to Bostrom, a posthuman would possess superhuman abilities in one or more of the following areas: (1) mental and physical health and vitality across an extended lifespan; (2) advanced logic, reasoning, memory, cognition, attention, and/or creative capabilities; and (3) extraordinary empathy or emotional perceptiveness/responsiveness. Such capabilities could theoretically be achieved in multiple ways, including genetic modifications and synthetic technologies that augment natural human capacities.

Background

The terms posthuman and posthumanism are often used interchangeably, but they do not refer to an identical set of ideas. Posthumanism is a philosophical concept with many different definitions and applications across multiple branches of science and the humanities. At its core, posthumanist thought is preoccupied with the interrelationships between human beings, animals, the natural world, and technology. It generally rejects the traditional boundaries separating each of these subjects, and from this viewpoint, it encompasses the kind of posthuman being discussed by thinkers like Bostrom. In posthumanist philosophy, such beings are usually described as transhuman. This term is used to clarify the distinction between posthuman beings with superhuman capabilities and the broader questions of posthumanist thought, which include many other philosophical issues that arise when human beings are no longer assumed to occupy the central place in a systematic understanding of the world. Some branches of posthumanism aim to deconstruct traditional notions of essential aspects of the human experience, like birth, growth, emotional development, artistic and cultural achievement, and death. Others endeavor to imagine a future without any humans at all. Individual human and posthuman beings frequently play a more peripheral role in posthumanist philosophies, especially when compared to the humanist ideas upon which modern Western civilization was built. Thus, it is more accurate to view posthuman as an approximate analogue of transhuman rather than posthumanism.

Emerging conceptions of posthuman beings have entered philosophy and biotechnology from origins in science fiction. With computer and connectivity technologies continuing to advance at very rapid rates, many leading thinkers believe it is inevitable that human biology will merge with technology in the future. Some theorists believe that advanced forms of artificial intelligence (AI) may make this a necessity if humans wish to avoid subjugation or extinction at the hands of out-of-control sentient technologies.

Genetic modifications appear poised to make other forms of human enhancement attainable in the near- to medium-term future. Many renowned thinkers including the likes of Stephen Hawking (1942–2018) have discussed the increasingly feasible possibility of using gene editing technologies to enhance physical attributes like memory, disease resistance, and the human lifespan beyond its natural limits.

Overview

In arriving at conceptions of the posthuman being, thinkers note that contemporary standards of human life in developed countries would have been unthinkable to people only a few generations ago. Even in the wealthiest nations on Earth, life expectancies in the mid-nineteenth century averaged only about forty years. Many illnesses and infections that ranked among the leading causes of death in the nineteenth century are highly treatable in the twenty-first century, while some once-common, debilitating conditions like polio have been all but eradicated. Moreover, these enormous quality-of-life improvements were achieved in a relatively short period of time when taking the whole of human history into account. Thus, to many experts, it is not only feasible but practical to look to a not-too-distant future in which technologies like gene editing, stem cell engineering, brain-computer interfaces, and biomechanical implants make previously unimaginable physical, mental, and emotional capabilities a regular part of the human experience.

Though there is no uniform conception of the posthuman being, most ideas anticipate that the underlying technologies would be used to overcome the biological limitations that govern the natural human lifespan, brain function and cognition, and sensory capabilities. In his 2006 paper titled “Why I Want to Be a Posthuman When I Grow Up,” Bostrom identifies the defining characteristic of the posthuman as having abilities beyond what is imaginable. The posthuman experience of life would be dramatically different from the human experience, given its liberation from the confines and boundaries that constrain the possibilities of human endeavor in the early decades of the twenty-first century.

For Bostrom, as for many other experts in the field, the key questions about the possible posthuman future do not revolve around whether it will happen or how it will be achieved. Instead, they grapple with the concept’s ethical implications. Bostrom identifies five levels of objection to posthumanity, which he terms Level 0, Level 1, Level 2, Level 3, and Level 4.

Level 0 objections center on the empirical claim that it is impossible to create posthuman beings, while Level 1 concerns focus on the prohibitive costs creating such beings would entail. At Level 2, opponents claim posthumanity would create new forms of conflict, inequality, or discrimination. Level 3 and Level 4 examine posthuman beings from a more conceptual standpoint, asking whether life as a posthuman would be better or worse than as a regular human and whether or not humankind would ultimately benefit from becoming posthuman. Many thinkers acknowledge that posthuman technologies, at least in their initial generations, would likely only be available to the rich. Hawking warned that such a situation could result in a superhuman subspecies controlling or vanquishing the rest of humanity. Bostrom relegates this to a lower level of concern, instead wondering whether posthuman people would find fulfillment with excellent health across longer lifespans or whether existing biological limitations are the key to deriving meaning from life. While Bostrom remains cautiously optimistic about the long-term benefits of evolving into a posthuman form, Hawking characterizes it as a potential calamity that could undesirably and irreversibly alter the future of the human species.

Bibliography

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Bostrom, Nick. “Why I Want to Be Posthuman When I Grow Up.” Medical Enhancement and Posthumanity(2008): pp. 107–137. Available at nickbostrom.com/posthuman.pdf. Accessed 4 Feb. 2025.

Braidotti, Rosi, and Maria Hlavajova. Posthuman Glossary. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2018.

Clarke, Steve, et. al. The Ethics of Human Enhancement: Understanding the Debate.Oxford UP, 2016.

“Human Enhancement.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 7 Apr. 2015, plato.stanford.edu/entries/enhancement/. Accessed 24 Apr. 2019.

LaGrandeur, Kevin. “What Is the Difference between Posthumanism and Transhumanism?” Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies, 28 July 2014, ieet.org/index.php/IEET2/more/lagrandeur20140729. Accessed 4 Feb. 2025.

Marsh, Sarah. “Stephen Hawking’s Warning: Gene-Edited ‘Superhumans’ Threaten the Rest of Humanity.” Genetic Literacy Project, 19 Oct. 2018, geneticliteracyproject.org/2018/10/19/stephen-hawkings-warning-gene-edited-superhumans-threaten-the-rest-of-humanity/. Accessed 4 Feb. 2025.

Merzlyakov, S.S. "Posthumanism vs. Transhumanism: From the 'End of Exceptionalism' to 'Technological Humanism.'" Herald of Russian Academy of Science, vol. 92, no. 6, 475–82, 2022, doi.org/10.1134/S1019331622120073. Accessed 4 Feb. 2025. 

“What Does It Mean to Be Posthuman?” New Scientist, 8 May 2013, www.newscientist.com/article/mg21829162-400-what-does-it-mean-to-be-posthuman/. Accessed 4 Feb. 2025.