Upaniṣads
The Upaniṣads are ancient Indian texts that form the concluding portions of the Vedas, central to Hindu philosophy and spirituality. The term "Upaniṣad" translates to "sitting at the feet of the teacher," reflecting the tradition of learning from wise sages. Traditionally, there are 108 Upaniṣads, with ten considered particularly significant. These texts delve into profound philosophical concepts, including the nature of reality, referred to as brahman, and the individual self, or ātman. A key teaching is the realization that the individual soul is fundamentally identical to the absolute reality of brahman, encapsulated in the phrase "tat tvam asi," meaning "that you are." The Upaniṣads emphasize the importance of introspection and moral living as pathways to understanding this unity and achieving mokṣa, or liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) and the consequences of one's actions (karma). Advaita Vedānta, a prominent school of thought derived from the Upaniṣads, teaches the idea of nonduality and has notably influenced modern spiritual movements through influential figures such as Swami Vivekananda and Paramahamsa Yogananda. Overall, the Upaniṣads invite deep reflection on the self and the universe, offering insights that continue to resonate across cultures and philosophies.
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Subject Terms
Upaniṣads
Related civilizations: India, Asia.
Date: compiled c. 1000-c. 200 b.c.e.
Locale: Indian subcontinent
Authorship: Compilation of various Indian sages
Upaniṣads
The Upaniṣads (ew-PAH-nih-shahdz)—from the Sanskrit upa (near), ni (down), and sad (to sit, collectively), meaning “sitting at the feet of the teacher”—make up the concluding portions of the Vedas and consist of the utterances and speculations of various sages concerning ultimate wisdom. The traditional number of Upaniṣads is 108, of which 10 are the most important. These “revealed” teachings make up the basis for the tradition of Vedantic philosophy and therefore influenced generations of subsequent Indian thinkers who used elements of the Upaniṣads to construct their own philosophical systems. The Upaniṣads elaborate on the tendency toward philosophical reflection and speculation to be found in the earlier Rigveda (also known as Ṛgveda, c. 1500-1000 b.c.e.; English translation, 1896-1897).
Although the Upaniṣads do not present a coherent system of thought, certain central philosophical doctrines do emerge. The ultimate ground of all reality is called brahman. This absolute reality of brahman makes up the objective universe as it manifests or projects itself into being. It is called ātman (or the finite soul) in its manifestation within the individual who knows it through introspection and intuition. Therefore, the individual soul is ultimately identical to the brahman and is infinite. This monistic wisdom is formulated in the often cited Vedantic doctrine: tat tvam asi, or “that you are.” The experience of separation of self and universe, of the individual soul and the divine is in truth an illusion, or māyā. The pathway to the realization of this basic truth is through disciplined introspection—a journey into the intuitive self—and correct moral action. The goal is to realize fully the identity of the finite self with that of the infinite (to achieve deliverance, moshka or mokṣa) and thus to be released from the sufferings of the finite being in its cycles of rebirth in time (known as samsara) and from the cosmic law of karma (actions and consequences).
Advaita Vedānta, which literally means “nondualism,” is the best known and most influential school of Indian religious philosophy that is based on the Upaniṣads. It is also based on the Indian religious classic the Bhagavadgītā (c. 200 b.c.e.-200 c.e.; The Bhagavad Gita, 1785). It teaches that brahman is the only absolute reality and that the individual self, the ātman, is illusory. In this respect, Advaita Vedānta has often been compared to Buddhism with its central teaching of anatman, or the idea that the self does not exist. Advaita Vedānta has become an international religious school through the work of teachers (or gurus) such as Swami Vivekananda and Paramahamsa Yogananda.
Bibliography
Gupta, Bina. The Disinterested Witness: A Fragment of Advaita Vedānta Phenomenology. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1998.
Olivelle, Patrick, trans. Upaniṣads. London: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Sharma, Arvind. The Philosophy of Religion and Advaita Vedanta: A Comparative Study in Religion and Reason. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995.
Vraiaprana, Pravrajika. Vedanta: A Simple Introduction. Los Angeles: Vedanta Press, 1999.