Reference Groups and Role Models

This article focuses on reference groups and role models. Understanding the role that reference groups and role models play in social life is vital background for all those interested in the sociology of social interaction in groups and organizations. This article explores the sociology of reference groups and role models in four parts: An overview of the main types of reference groups including normative groups, comparison groups, and audience groups; a description of the social functions of reference groups and role models; a discussion of the main contributors to reference group and role model theory including Herbert Hyman, Robert Merton, Muzafer Sherif, and Theodore Newcomb; and an exploration of the ways that social scientists apply reference group and role model theories to consumer research.

Keywords Comparison Groups; Gender Role Self-Concept; Identity; Normative Groups; Reference Groups; Reference Individuals; Relative Deprivation Theory; Role Model; Sanctions; Social Functions; Society; Sociology

Social Interaction in Groups & Organizations > Reference Groups & Role Models

Reference Groups & Role Models

Overview

Reference groups are social groups to which individuals refer when making decisions and judgments (Paynton, 1966). An individual may or may not actually belong to a reference group but he or she identifies with the group based on criteria such as status, race, class, or ethnicity. For instance, law students may consider lawyers as a reference group because they anticipate achieving that professional group status. Reference groups set and enforce standards of conduct and belief and serve as a standard against which people can evaluate themselves, their own behavior, and others. Advertisers and marketers are interested in reference groups as they allow them to better sell products to certain populations. Role models, a subfield of the reference group concept, are individuals who serve as model for behavior or social role.

Reference group concepts are used to understand achievement and performance. Sociologists study reference groups and role models to better understand the psychological basis for achievement. An individual's achievement is affected, and possibly largely determined, by the reference groups that surround him or her; achievement is also effected by socialization, role performance, and reference group identification. Reference group theory cannot explain exactly how an individual chooses a reference group and is not a single entity or explanation for the functioning of reference groups. Instead, reference group theory is comprised of concepts such as role set, role model, reference set, and preference group. Within reference groups, role models are one of the many tools used to direct and, in some instances, control individual behavior (Kemper, 1968).

Understanding the role that reference groups and role models play in social life is vital background for all those interested in the sociology of social interaction in groups and organizations. This article explores the sociology of reference groups and role models in four parts:

• An overview of the main types of reference groups including normative groups, comparison groups, and audience groups;
• A description of the social functions of reference groups and role models;
• A discussion of the main contributors to reference group and role model theory including Herbert Hyman, Robert Merton, Muzafer Sherif, and Theodore Newcomb;
• An exploration of the ways that social scientists apply reference group and role model theories in consumer research.

Types of Reference Groups

Reference groups, in the form of a group, collectivity or person, are the social mechanisms by which individual achievement is fostered. Reference groups help individuals select choices, direction, and behaviors from all possible options and influence actions and attitudes of individuals. Reference groups are classified into three types described below: Normative groups, comparison groups, and audience groups. In some instances, a person or group may represent more than one type of reference group to an individual. For example, parents may represent a normative group, comparison group, and audience group to a child.

• Normative groups refer to groups, collectivities, or people that provide an individual with a direction and guide for action based on clear values and norms by establishing clear expectations for behavior and compliance. Examples of normative groups include family, nation, employer, or spouse. Normative groups expect individuals to engage with group norms and values but do not demand compliance. In normative groups, deviance from or compliance with values and norms are weighted equally. Normative groups do not distinguish between member motivation or mood.
• Comparison groups refer to groups, collectivities, or people that provide an individual with a frame of reference to evaluate problematic and challenging issues such as the equity of one's fate; the legitimacy of one's actions; and the adequacy of one's performance. Comparison groups are further divided into different types including equity group, legitimator group, role model, and accommodator group. The equity group is used as a frame of reference to assess whether one's situation is fair and equitable in situations when the legitimacy of his or her behavior and opinions are questioned. Legitimator groups are led by opinion originators. Role models demonstrate for individuals how acts should be technically performed. They may be real, known in person, known by reputation, imagined, or historical. Individuals choose role models based on the skills, knowledge, and technique that the individual hopes to learn. The accommodator group refers to a group or person which provides the individual with direction for a complementary or parallel response. Complementary responses are appropriate for cooperative situations. Parallel responses are appropriate for competitive situations. Accommodator groups encourage individuals to adjust their behavior based on the behavior and performance of others. Comparison groups are considered to be the oldest type of reference groups.
• Audience groups refer to groups, collectivities, or people to which individuals attribute characteristics, values, and attributes. Individuals attempt to emulate the characteristics, values, and attributes that they attribute to audience groups. The audience group's characteristics, values, and attributes may be clearly expressed or a case of speculation. Audience groups and normative groups have significant differences. For instance, audience groups and normative groups employ different sanctioning groups. In addition, audience groups take no notice of the individual while normative groups require compliance from individuals.

Source of Power

Reference groups and role models get their power from the benefits, sanctions, and reinforcements they offer. Each of the three different types of reference groups, normative group, comparison group, and audience group, offer different benefits, sanctions, and reinforcements. For instance, normative groups punish individuals for deviance and advocate conformity with group values as a means of avoiding punishment. The law is a strong example of normative prescription and proscription. Normative groups, which motivate behavior through fear of punishment, are not associated with encouraging achievement. Individuals tend to be motivated toward achievement by a reward of some kind rather than the absence of punishment. Audience groups provide the promise of reward and recognition along with the potential for rejection or indifference. In contrast to normative groups and audience groups, comparison groups and role models are not associated with rewards or punishments. Role models demonstrate behavior judged high enough to avoid normative punishments and receive rewards. Role models reinforce particular high achieving behaviors.

All three types of groups may be necessary for high levels of achievement. In high achievement scenarios, normative groups establish norms and values through the threat of punishment, comparison groups demonstrate how roles should be adequately performed, and audience groups provide the motivation and desire for high-level effort and performance. Ultimately, normative groups provide norms and values, assign individuals to roles, express standards, and establish legitimacy through fear of punishment. Comparison groups provide role models and legitimation as well as demonstration for how roles should be enacted without associations with punishment or reward. Audience groups impart values and create a desire for achievement based off the promise of reward and recognition (Kemper, 1968).

Social Functions of Reference Groups & Role Models

Reference Groups & Gender Behavior

Social scientists consider reference groups and role models to be one of the strongest determinants of an individual's behavior (Mehta et al, 2001). Reference groups are believed to shape gender behavior. For instance, Social scientists have studied male reference groups to understand the extent to which men are dependent on male reference groups in forming their gender role self-concept. The gender role self-concept refers to an individual's sense of self as related to gender roles, attributes, and behavior. Social scientists have indentified three distinct reference group identity statuses each with a different effect on gender role self-concept. The three distinct reference group identity statuses include the No Reference Group status, the Reference Group Dependent status, and the Reference Group Nondependent status.

• No Reference Group status refers to an individual male's lack of psychological relatedness to other males.
• Reference Group Dependent status refers to an individual male's psychological relatedness to some but not all males.
• The Reference Group Nondependent status refers to an individual male's psychological relatedness to all males.

The research on male reference groups has implications for female reference groups and for gendered behavior in general (Wade, 2001).

Reference Groups & Socialization

Reference groups and role models serve multiple social functions for individuals including socializing and guiding opinion and action. Each of the three different types of reference groups, normative groups, comparison groups, and audience groups, plays a different part in the process of socialization. Reference groups ensure conformity with cultural patterns, role performance, and achievements efforts and standards. Normative groups ensure that individuals in society conform with fundamental cultural patterns, encourage individuals to play appropriate roles in society based on age gender, education, and profession, direct behavior and define acceptable boundaries for deviance and compliance and establish and express the requirements of different roles in society. While normative groups influence attitude and belief about what is appropriate and right, normative groups do not always manage to influence actual behavior. Comparison reference groups, often in the form of role models, demonstrate how as opposed to why something should be done a certain way.

Role Models

In addition, comparison reference groups, most often in the form of role models, ensure that roles are adequately performed in society. Role models demonstrate appropriate behavior and conformance. Role models are particularly useful for roles requiring complicated behaviors and performances. Role models, a method based on socialization through observation, tend to replace socialization through verbal instruction alone. When individuals perform their role more than adequately, the individual is considered to have made an achievement of some kind.

High Achievement

Achievement of anything beyond the group-specified adequate performance encompasses both group-specified standards and individual effort. Highest forms of achievement require the influence of normative groups, role models, and audience groups. Normative groups encourage extra effort on the part of individuals that then may lead to greater achievement. Role models may demonstrate achievement level performance. Lastly, individuals tend to exert extra effort to conform and model the audience group's values (Kemper, 1968).

Reference groups and role models function to maintain social order and smooth functioning of social processes. For instance, an individual's pay satisfaction is influenced and possibly determined by the values of their chosen normative reference groups. Pay comparisons, which reflect an employee's normative orientations, are a product of active comparison between self and chosen referent. An employee's pay satisfaction is related to his or her perceived place in society's reward structure. Ultimately, individuals choose reference groups and role models who they consider to be similar to themselves in earning capabilities, personality, intelligence, potential, race, gender, or ethnicity (Dornstein, 1988).

Main Contributors to Reference Group & Role Model Theory

Reference groups and role models are an important area of study for sociology, psychology, and consumer studies. The concept of the reference group, introduced in 1942, has been developed and advanced by numerous prominent theorists including Herbert Hyman, Robert Merton, Muzafer Sherif, and Theodore Newcomb. The work of Hyman, Merton, Sherif, and Newcomb, described below, explored how comparison reference groups influence and possibly determine an individual's behavior (Kemper, 1968).

Herbert Hyman

Herbert Hyman (1918-1985) is the social scientist credited with first using the term 'reference group' in 1942. Hyman considered reference groups to be points of reference used to make comparisons of one's self with others. Reference groups, according to Hyman, were useful for making judgments or drawing conclusions. Hyman is remembered as a social scientist, concerned with research methodology and theory, who made significant contributions to the fields of sociology and psychology (Paynton, 1966).

Robert Merton

Robert Merton (1910-2003) made significant contributions to the sociology of deviance and reference groups. Merton, building on the work of Herbert Hyman, further developed the concept of the reference group. He used the concept to show how deprivation could mediate between social structure and interpersonal patterns of behavior. Because a reference group develops when individuals compare themselves to others who are similar, a reference group can cause individuals to develop a sense of relative deprivation. Merton made a clear distinction between reference groups and interaction groups. Interaction groups are part of society at large and tend not to establish normative values for individuals. Merton made numerous connections between reference groups and Samuel A. Stouffer's theory of relative deprivation (O'Connor, 2007).

Criminology

Merton's work on reference groups, relative deprivation, and social strain is often used in the field of criminology. Merton argued that the cultural system in the United States encourages everyone to pursue financial success over all other goals. Merton's version of strain theory, which posits that social structures may encourage actors to commit criminal acts, preserves the theoretical link between culture and social structure. Merton was heavily influenced by the work of Pitirim Sorokin, a Russian sociologist who used quantitative methods to study the variables of social change (Rosenfeld, 1989). Merton's work on role models is considered theoretically significant. Merton made a clear distinction between types of role models. According to Merton, reference individuals function as a pattern for social life while role models serve as a model for specific behaviors.

Samuel A. Stouffer & Relative Deprivation

Relative deprivation theory refers to the idea that feelings of deprivation and discontent are related to a desired point of reference (i.e. reference groups). Sociologist Samuel A. Stouffer (1900-1960) is credited with developing relative deprivation theory after World War II. Stouffer first wrote of relative deprivation theory in his study entitled "The American Soldier" (1949). Feelings of relative deprivation arise when desires become legitimate expectations and those desires are blocked by society. Social satisfaction is the opposite of relative deprivation. Relative deprivation is generally considered to be the central variable in the explanation of social movements. Relative deprivation theory is used to explain the quest for social change that inspires social movements. Social movements emerge from collective feelings of relative deprivation (Morrison, 1971).

Muzaref Sherif & Theodore Newcomb

Muzaref Sherif (1906-1988) studied how individuals strive to join and maintain their place in reference groups and was concerned with group conflict and group processes. According to Sherif, a social psychologist, reference group members adopt the norms of the reference group as their own. Theodore Newcomb (1903-1984) distinguished between positive and negative reference groups. According to Newcomb, a social psychologist, positive reference groups refer to groups in which one is positively motivated to join, follow the rules, and seek acceptance. Negative reference groups refer to groups to which one does not want to join or be treated like a member (Paynton, 1966). Other theorists who have made significant contributions to the concepts of reference groups and role models include Tamotsu Shibutani, Ralph Turner, and Erving Goffman.

Applications

Reference Groups, Role Models & Consumer Research

Social scientists study the influence that reference groups and role models have on social behavior and identity. In particular, a significant amount of research has been undertaken by sociologists, psychologists, and economists to find out how consumer behavior and reference groups are linked. Consumer research refers to studies undertaken to gather data on consumption habits of different classes and types of consumers. In many instances, consumer social science research is applied research undertaken with all or partial funding by business interests.

Consumer research on reference groups has demonstrated that there is definite link between group membership and brand preference and usage. In consumer research, reference groups are narrowly defined as the social groups to which consumers compare themselves. Consumer research divides reference groups into member groups and aspiration groups. Member groups are groups to which people already belong and aspiration groups are those groups to which people hope one day to belong.

Social scientists have found that reference groups influence consumers in three main ways: Informational influence, utilitarian influence, and value expressive influence. Researchers have demonstrated that brand use by reference groups influence consumer self-brand connections. For instance, researchers demonstrated that individual consumers who considered themselves to be or aspiring to be part of an intellectual reference group, chose the Volvo brand of automobile over other similarly priced brands. Consumers are also more likely to form self-brand connections when specific role models are associated with a brand or product (Escalas & Bettman, 2003).

Issues

The idea of the reference group has become an established concept in social science theory since the introduction of the reference group concept in 1942. Critics of reference group theory suggest that the ubiquity of the reference group concept in all social science fields puts the concept of the reference group in danger of losing any singular or agreed-upon meaning. Critics argue that studies of normative reference groups far outweigh studies of comparative reference groups causing possibly skewed research findings. Research on reference group theory focuses on groups to the exclusion of reference individuals or reference ideas. There is no agreed upon methodology across disciplines for studying reference groups (Griessmann, 1968). In addition, critics argue that reference group theory cannot explain exactly how an individual chooses a reference group. Supporters of reference group theory argue that a reference group is not a single entity or explanation for the functioning of reference groups. Instead, reference group theory, say supporters, is comprised of concepts such as role set, role model, reference set, and preference group (Kemper, 1968).

Conclusion

This article explores the sociology of reference groups and role models in four parts:

• An overview of the main types of reference groups including normative groups, comparison groups, and audience groups;
• A description of the social functions of reference groups and role models;
• A discussion of the main contributors to reference group and role model theory including Herbert Hyman, Robert Merton, Muzafer Sherif, and Theodore Newcomb;
• An exploration of the ways that social scientists apply reference group and role model theories in consumer research.

Ultimately, understanding the role that reference groups and role models play in social life is vital background for all those interested in the sociology of social interaction in groups and organizations. In the final analysis, reference groups, which are social groups to which individuals refer when making decisions and judgments, are groups to which an individual may or may not actually belong but with which he or she identifies and feels connected based on criteria such as status, race, class, or ethnicity (Paynton, 1966). Reference groups set and enforce standards of conduct and belief and serve as a standard against which people can evaluate themselves, their own behavior, and others.

Terms & Concepts

Comparison Groups: Groups, collectivities, or people that provide an individual with a frame of reference to evaluate problematic and challenging issues such as the equity of one's fate; the legitimacy of one's actions; and the adequacy of one's performance.

Gender Role Self-Concept: An individual's sense of self as related to gender roles, attributes, and behavior.

Identity: A sense of self often developed in relation to others.

Normative Groups: Groups, collectivities, or people that provide an individual with a direction and guide for action based on clear values and norms.

Reference Groups: A social group to which individuals refer when making decisions and judgments.

Reference Individuals: People who serve as a pattern or model for social life.

Relative Deprivation Theory: The idea that feelings of deprivation and discontent are related to a desired point of reference (i.e. reference groups).

Role Models: Role models refer to individuals who serve as a model for behavior or social role.

Sanctions: Support or penalties associated with a specific behavior or course of action.

Social Functions: The parts, roles, or purposes that an entity plays in society.

Society: A group of individuals united by values, norms, culture, or organizational affiliation.

Sociology: The scientific study of human social behavior, human association, and the results of social activities.

Bibliography

Dornstein, M. (1988). Wage reference groups and their determinants: A study of blue-collar and white-collar employees in Israel. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 61, 221-235. Retrieved August 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http:///search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=4619428&site=ehost-live

Escalas, J. & Bettman, J. (2003). You are what they eat: The influence of reference groups on consumers' connections to brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13, 339. Retrieved August 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http:///search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=10625910&site=ehost-live

Featherstone, R. & Deflem, M. (2003). Anomie and strain: Context and consequences of Merton's two theories. Sociological Inquiry, 73, 471-489. Retrieved August 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http:///search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=11169661&site=ehost-live

Fisher, R., & Andrews, J. (1976). The impact of self-selection and reference group identification in a university living-learning center. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 4, 209-218. Retrieved August 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http:///search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=11633557&site=ehost-live

Griessmann, B. (1968). Readings in reference group theory and research. Rural Sociology, 33, 497-498. Retrieved August 25, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http:///search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=13189576&site=ehost-live

Kemper, T. (1968). Reference groups, socialization and achievement. American Sociological Review, 33, 31-45. Retrieved August 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http:///search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12766429&site=ehost-live

Lawrence, B.S. (2006). Organizational reference groups: A missing perspective on social context. Organization Science, 17, 80-100.

Mehta, S., Lalwani, A., & Ping, L. (2001). Reference group influence and perceived risk in services among working women in Singapore: A replication and extension. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 14, 43. Retrieved August 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http:///search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=6923017&site=ehost-live

Moradi, B., Velez, B., & Parent, M. (2013). The theory of male reference group identity dependence: Roles of social desirability, masculinity ideology, and collective identity. Sex Roles, 68(7/8), 415–426. Retrieved October 31, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=85987020

Morrison, D. (1971). Some notes toward theory on relative deprivation, social movements, and social change. The American Behavioral Scientist (pre-1986), 14, 675.

O'Connor, T. (2007). Strain theories of crime. Megalinks in Criminal Justice. Retrieved August 14, 2008, from http://www.apsu.edu/oconnort/crim/crimtheory11.htm.

Paynton, C. (1966). A suggestion for reference group theory: Ideational reference and group referents. Canadian Review of Sociology & Anthropology, 3, 214. Retrieved August 25, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http:///search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=10818759&site=ehost-live

Rosenfeld, R. (1989). Robert Merton's contributions to the sociology of deviance. Sociological Inquiry, 59, 453.

Vizer, E., & Carvalho, H. (2013). Socioanalysis: A communicational research device for social intervention. Historical Social Research, 38, 218–235. Retrieved October 31, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=88102078

Wade, Jay C. (2001). Professional men's attitudes toward race and gender quity. Journal of Men's Studies, 10, 73.

Wood, A. M., Brown, G. A., Maltby, J., & Watkinson, P. (2012). How are personality judgments made? A cognitive model of reference group effects, personality scale responses, and behavioral reactions. Journal Of Personality, 80, 1275–1311. Retrieved October 31, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=80236027

Suggested Reading

Flouri, E., & Buchanan, A. (2002). The role of work-related skills and career role models in adolescent career maturity. Career Development Quarterly, 51, 36-43. Retrieved August 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http:///search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=7384586&site=ehost-live

Karunanayake, D., & Nauta, M. (2004). The relationship between race and students' identified career role models and perceived role model influence. Career Development Quarterly, 52, 225-234. Retrieved August 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http:///search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12621130&site=ehost-live

Mangum, M. (2012). Explaining African-American political trust: Examining psychological involvement, policy satisfaction, and reference group effects. International Social Science Review, 87(1/2), 3–18. Retrieved October 31, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=77242932

Tomprou, M., & Nikolaou, I. (2013). Exploring the role of social influence in promise beliefs and information acquisition among newcomers. European Journal Of Work & Organizational Psychology, 22, 408–422. Retrieved October 31, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=89481132

Walsh, R., Ferrell, M., & Tolone, W. (1976). Selection of reference group, perceived reference group permissiveness, and personal permissiveness attitudes and behavior: A study of two consecutive panels. Journal of Marriage & Family, 38, 495-507. Retrieved August 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http:///search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5273497&site=ehost-live