Control Theory of Deviance

An overview of control theory of deviance is provided, beginning with a general review of social control followed by brief explanations of specific theories of social control. The development of social control theory is displayed through the review of Sykes and Matza's techniques of neutralization, Matza's drift theory, Reckless' containment theory, Gottfredson and Hirschi's low self-control theory and ending with the more popular social bond theory developed earlier by Hirschi. Social implications of social control theory are provided. Social control theory generally assumes that the connection people have to each other and to society prevents people from engaging in deviant behavior. Without the presence of social control, society would not exist as we know it. Social control theories aid in our understanding of why most people do not behave in deviant ways most of the time.

Keywords Attachment; Belief; Commitment; Deviance; Drift Theory; Involvement; Self-control Theory; Social Bond; Social Control; Social Control Theory; Techniques of Neutralization

Control Theory of Deviance

Overview

Control theory of deviance is important to sociology because it aids in our understanding of deviant human behavior. Control theories generally assume that all members of society are motivated to satisfy their needs and wants by whatever means possible. Thus, most interesting to control theorists is why so many people conform to norms and values of society. Put another way, control theories aim to determine why most members of society follow rules, do what is expected of them, and generally are well behaved. While other theories of deviance may also contribute to our understanding of why deviance occurs, control theories have proven to be reliable predictors of conformity: when people do not commit deviant behavior. Control theories suggest that there is opportunity for people to be deviant but more often than not people choose not to be deviant. Control theories are amotivational. They assume all people desire the excitement and thrill of deviant acts. In this sense control theories suggest that socialization prevents one from committing deviant acts.

Contemporary social control theories developed from the work of early social control theorists such as Reiss (1951), Toby (1957), and Nye (1958). Reiss suggested that belief systems were more important in controlling human behavior than formal norms (laws). Contemporary social control theories build upon Reiss' suggestion. Through the process of socialization, the individual develops a bond with society. Social control theories best account for the patterns we see in juvenile delinquency. Various opportunities to commit deviant acts are created by mere temptations, peers, and other factors. According to control theories, the ready availability of these opportunities is not adequate to explain why people participate in deviant behaviors. The opportunity to commit deviant acts does not provide causation. Control theories suggest that inadequate controlling forces determine whether people behave in deviant behaviors.

Social control theories have developed into either a macro- social perspective or a micro-social perspective. As with other social theories, the macro-social perspective is used to explain patterns occurring in formal social systems such as the criminal justice system, law development and enforcement, nongovernmental organizations, and governmental and economic entities. The micro-social control perspective relies on the informal social system to explain why people refrain from committing deviant acts.

Further Insights

Related Theories

Several social control theories have been developed since Reiss's work in 1951. Control theory (also known as social bond theory), developed by Travis Hirschi (1969), and low self-control theory, developed by Gottfredson and Hirschi, are the two more popular control theories of deviance: Hirschi's control theory has been used in sociology to describe individuals' conforming behavior tendencies. Gottfredson and Hirschi's low self-control theory is a general theory of crime in which the low self-control is generally due to ineffective parenting. It is important to note that there are many forms of control theory. Before reviewing each of these more popular theories, we will first explain a few less-often used approaches to control theory of deviance: Sykes and Matza's neutralization theory, Matza's drift theory and Reckless' containment theory.

Neutralization Theory: Sykes & Matza

Gresham Sykes and David Matza (1957) developed the theory of neutralization based upon the arguments and justifications provided by persons known to commit deviant acts. These theorists suggested that delinquents were more similar than dissimilar to nondelinquents, because delinquents comply with social expectations most of the time, as do nondelinquents. They suggested that people who participate in deviant behavior more often than not conform to societal expectations. One can justify participation in deviant behavior by waiving or suspending the rules of society using a technique of neutralization. Techniques of neutralization can take various forms. People can justify their deviant acts by claiming they could not help themselves. They merely deny responsibility. Another technique is to convey an attitude that the deviant act did not result in any harm or injury and thus the behavior is irrelevant. Similarly, people can deny that there was any real victim. Essentially, the argument here is that the target of the deviant behavior got what they deserved. A less similar technique is to basically tell the people judging them or claiming that their behavior was deviant they have no right to criticize. Sykes and Matza refer to this as "condemn the condemners." Another technique explained by Sykes and Matza is where people appeal to higher loyalties. People might claim their moral obligation was to do the act with people important to them or for people who are important to them.

They clarify that when people are in their adolescent and young adult years they are most likely to use the techniques of neutralization. Sykes and Matza highlight that adolescents and young adults do not undergo new socialization in middle adulthood that reduces the use of neutralization techniques; rather, they proffer that even in adolescent and young adult years a foundation of morality exists. As people move into their middle and late adult years they become less likely to use techniques of neutralization.

Drift Theory: Matza

Matza moved on to develop drift theory in 1964. The theory is based upon the pattern people have of shifting between conforming behavior and nonconforming behavior. The theory rests upon the premise that conforming and nonconforming people believe in the moral guidelines in society. Matza concluded that people use the techniques of neutralization to waive the moral guidelines. He founded drift theory based upon the patterns of delinquents to express guilt over deviant acts, to express high regard for conforming people, to have a set of guidelines as to whom they can victimize, and to typically conform to society's moral guidelines.

Containment Theory: Reckless

Walter Reckless developed containment theory in the 1960s. Containment theory explains people's conformity with societal expectations using a complex interplay between inner and outer pulls and pushes to deviate that are counterbalanced by containment. Containment can also derive from inner and outer sources. An internal containment may be related to having a positive self-image and an outer containment could be the awareness that discipline by another person may follow the deviant act. Inner containment generally involves a positive self-concept, goals in line with societal expectations, frustration tolerance, and long-term belief in societal norms. Inner containment may result from socialization within the family and outer containment may result from strong relationships with people who profess generally conventional values and behaviors. The pulls and pushes to deviate also can derive from inner and outer sources. Inner push factors can be related to bad family experiences, hostility, boredom, etc. Outer pull factors could be from peer pressure to deviate or other sources of outside suggestion. Reckless suggested that in order for the continued existence of society, society must have conforming members (Reckless, 1967).

Low Self-Control Theory: Gottfredson & Hirschi

Low self-control theory of deviance was proposed by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990). As a general theory of crime, it aims to explain most crime in society. They argue that the lower one's level of self-control, the more likely one is to participate in criminal activity. They suggest strongly that the reason for low self-control is ineffective parenting. They explain that effective parenting is focused on concern for the child, recognizing deviant behavior, punishing deviant behavior, and rewarding appropriate behavior. When effective parenting is practiced, children and adults will develop high levels of self-control and thus resist temptations to participate in deviant behavior. Persons with low self-control have characteristics of being overly physical, insensitive, impulsive, and exhibit high risk-taking behaviors. Persons with low self-control emanate such characteristics in all types of activities in which they participate, including criminal and analogous acts.

This theory accounts for the onset of deviant behavior: low self-control. But it does not explain the aging-out of crime because, it says, once the person is deviant with low self- control, that is the way the person will remain over the life course. However, Gottfredson and Hirschi suggest that the low self-control follows a similar pattern to aging out of crime, and thus their theory does explain the aging out of crime.

Gottfredson and Hirschi's low self-control theory has received some criticism from scholars. Akers (1999) assails their work by claiming that key terms are not clearly defined and operationalized. Akers suggests the result is that low self-control and a propensity for deviant behavior are inseparable. In spite of the possible internal inconsistency in the theory, some research has found support for the theory.

Social Bonding Theory: Hirschi

Control theory has two basic levels: internal and external. The internal controls are the most relied upon by society to limit deviant behavior. Control theory indicates that social ties influence our inclinations to partake in deviant behavior (Michener, DeLamater, & Myers, 2004). Travis Hirschi developed social bond theory, which relies upon internal mechanisms of social control. In other words, individuals conform to society's norms when the individual's social bonds are stronger, while delinquent behavior and analogous behaviors occur when social bonds are weak. Hirschi (1969), probably the most influential figure of control theory, describes four components of the social bond: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.

Hirschi further describes delinquency in his book Causes of Delinquency (1969), while also contrasting control theories, strain theories, and differential association. Hirschi asserts that the more bonded one is to society, the less likely one is to commit criminal/deviant behavior. Bonding theory states that attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief are the determining factors in whether one is constrained from deviant acts. His theory assumes one moral or value code. Delinquents defy these values because their attachments to society are weak. Bond theory suggests that delinquents reject the social norms and beliefs of society.

Social bond theory explains deviant behavior by focusing on peoples' bond to society. The bond could consist of caring about other people, having concern about time invested into goals and projects such as athletic or academic pursuits, buying into the use of control mechanisms such as police/law enforcement and moral convictions, and the degree to which one has concern about the broader community.

Hirschi's Four Components

Hirschi's social bond theory has four primary components:

• Attachment (one's interest in others),

• Commitment (the time, energy, and effort one puts on conventional actions/others),

• Involvement (the amount of activities involving society/civic duties/family, school, etc.), and

• Belief (respect for law, people, institutions).

Hirschi's control theory aimed to explain not only deviance but conformity as well. As stated previously, social bonding theory explains a high amount of juvenile delinquency. However, it is less able to predict adult criminality. There may be methodological reasons for social bonding theory not explaining as much variation in adult deviant behavior. The latent variables of the social bond are not as uniformly defined in research on adult deviant behavior as they are on juvenile delinquency research. For example, in research on adolescent behaviors, the elements of the bond are usually defined as amount of involvement in school activities, hours spent on homework or with parents/friends, feelings of closeness to parents, and respect for law enforcement officers. The indicators of the latent social bond elements are not so uniformly defined when researchers examine adult criminality. The latent constructs are the same across the life course, but how researchers operationally define the terms varies greatly when adult samples are used. Thus, support for social bond theory is less consistent when adult samples are used in research (Hirschi, 1969).

Viewpoints

Social bond theory has been widely tested by criminologists. The overall results vary, with some scholars finding support for the theory and other scholars failing to find support for social bond theory. Control theory, however, has received support in sociological research. In research on family structure and deviant behavior, Rankin and Kern (1994) concluded that the two-parent family structure resulted in less deviant behavior. Krohn and Massey (1980) concluded that social bonds are more related to minor delinquent acts than more serious delinquency. Kendall (2004) concluded that the probability of crime increases when social bonds are weak. Weaker support of social bond theory was found by Akers and Lee (1998), who concluded that both social bonds and social learning theories mediated the relationship between age and marijuana use. Support of social bond theory is usually found using research samples composed of adolescent research subjects. Other theories are occasionally better predictors of juvenile crime (see Akers & Lee, 1998). The pattern of researchers more often finding support for social bond theory using adolescent research participants may be related to the operationalizaton of the elements of the bond as previously discussed. Researchers have found support for social bond theory using elderly research participants when elements of the bond are operationalized differently (see, for example, Akers, LaGreca, & Sellers, 1988).

Hirschi's methods and techniques have been criticized. Even with that criticism, however, his theory of social control does tend to contribute to our ability to predict delinquency. One critique is that Hirschi does not clarify the mechanisms by which one fails to bond or loses the bond. Another critique is that at some point in life, one is either bonded or not bonded. The theory does not leave much room for social bonding later in life.

Implications of Control Theory of Deviance

The social implications of research on control theory is that early childhood intervention is needed that enhances the individual's bond to society. Socialization is important for the continued existence of society as we know it. Mentoring and activities and programs to help develop participation and buy-in to the values of society could develop from policy informed by social control theory. Additional programs could focus on family empowerment and increased social support for families and incorporate parenting classes, and a third type of program may further investigate issues of chemical or medical intervention.

Conclusion

There are several approaches to social control theory. While none have been completely discarded by the discipline, Travis Hirschi's social bond theory has undergone more scholarly tests than other social control theories of deviance. Even after Hirschi and Gottfredson later developed the theory of low self- control, a general theory of crime, the original theory developed by Hirschi still receives more recognition in the field of sociology. The concepts and the assumptions of some of the earliest social control theorists remain fundamental to the more contemporary theories of social control. The elements of social control theory that have proven to be reliable predictors of juvenile delinquency are involvement, commitment, and attachment. While testing social control theories among adult samples has proven more challenging than among juvenile samples, the field of sociology is actively applying social control theories to adult deviant behaviors. Key theorists such as Hirschi, Gottfredson, and others continue to build upon the current applications of control theories of deviance. Social control theories have proven useful in predicting deviant behavior, and it is unclear if other types of theories will consistently provide more insight into deviance. While other types of theories also provide insight into deviant behavior, social control theories are widely known and accepted as plausible explanations of human behavior.

Terms & Concepts

Attachment: One of four elements of Hirschi's social control theory. It involves the level of an individual's closeness and emotional connectedness to people in their lives. The greater one's attachment, the less likely one is to participate in deviant behavior.

Belief: One of four elements of Hirschi's social control theory. It involves the level of an individual's agreement with the norms, morals, and values of society and the extent to which society has the right to enforce those norms, morals, and values. The greater one's belief, the less likely one is to participate in deviant behavior.

Commitment: One of four elements of Hirschi's social control theory. It involves the level of an individual's participation in the community. It is measured in a variety of ways, including participation in school activities (academic and extracurricular) and other aspects of the community. The greater one's commitment, the less likely one is to participate in deviant behavior.

Deviance: Occurs when an individual violates the norms, values, or laws of society. Most deviant behavior occurs in the adolescent and young adult years. The majority of deviant acts do not involve violation of formal norms (laws). However, most of the research on deviance focuses on juveniles’ violations of the law (delinquency). Deviance is studied by a variety of subfields in sociology, including criminology, social psychology, and others.

Involvement: One of four elements of Hirschi's social control theory. It involves the level of an individual's time spent on community activities. The more an individual's time is spent on conventional activities, the less time one has to violate the norms and laws of society. The greater one's involvement, the less likely one is to participate in deviant behavior.

Social Bond: A concept used by Hirschi in the development of social control theory. He proposed that the social bond is comprised of four elements: attachment, involvement, commitment, and belief. He postulated that individuals with higher levels of social bond are restrained from participating in deviant behavior.

Social Control: The effort of society to limit the behaviors of people in the society. Society uses two main approaches to limit the peoples' behaviors. The vast majority of peoples' behaviors are limited by informal techniques such as parents’ socialization of children; i.e., parents conveying guidelines for acceptable behavior and motivating children to comply. Society less frequently relies on formal mechanisms to limit peoples' behavior. The behaviors enforced by formal systems of control are considered more serious violations of the norms, values, and beliefs of society including homicide, assault, theft, and other crimes.

Techniques of Neutralization: A concept used by Sykes and Matza in the development of their social control theory of deviance. According to Sykes and Matza, individuals who participate in deviant behavior justify it by providing arguments such as denying there was a victim, condemning the condemners, and asserting just rewards.

Bibliography

Akers, R. L., & Lee, G. (1999) Age, social learning, and social bonding in adolescent substance use. Deviant Behavior, 20 , 1–25. Retrieved July 17, 2008 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=3860694&site=ehost-live

Akers, R. L., LaGreca, A. J., & Sellers, C. (1988). Theoretical perspectives on deviant behavior among the elderly. In B. McCarthy & R. Langworthy (Eds.), Older Offenders: Perspectives in Criminology & Criminal Justice. (35–50).

Bouffard, J. A., & Rice, S. K. (2011). The influence of the social bond on self-control at the moment of decision: Testing Hirschi's redefinition of self-control. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 36, 138–157. Retrieved October 28, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=60766482

Fitzgerald, C. S. (2011). Historical theories of crime and delinquency. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 21, 297–311. Retrieved October 28, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=60430021

Gottfredson, M., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

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Matza, D. (1964). Delinquency and drift. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964.

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Reckless, W. (1967). The crime problem. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

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Toby, J. (1957). Social disorganization and stake in conformity: complementary factors in the predatory behavior of hoodlums. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 48, 12–17. Retrieved July 7, 2008 from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=17059919&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Booth, J., Farrell, A., & Varano, S. (2008). Social control, serious delinquency, and risky behavior: A gendered analysis. Crime & Delinquency, 54, 423–456. Retrieved July 17, 2008 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=32847378&site=ehost-live

Burton, V. S., Cullen, F. T., Evans, T. D., Alarid, L. F., & Dunaway, R. G. (1998). Gender self-control and crime. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency; 35, 123–148. Retrieved July 17, 2008 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=531347&site=ehost-live

Cheung, N., & Cheung, Y. (2008). Self-control, social factors, and delinquency: A test of the general theory of crime among adolescents in Hong Kong. Journal of Youth & Adolescence 37, 412–430. Retrieved July 17, 2008 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=31160776&site=ehost-live

Peguero, A. A., Popp, A., Latimore, T., Shekarkhar, Z., & Koo, D. J. (2011). Social control theory and school misbehavior: Examining the role of race and ethnicity. Youth Violence & Juvenile Justice, 9, 259–275. Retrieved October 28, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=61767857

Preparata, G. (2013). Suburbia's "crime experts": The neo-conservatism of control theory and the ethos of crime. Critical Criminology, 21, 73–86. Retrieved October 28, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=85716438

Qiu, M. (2012). "It's not her fault!": Miley Cyrus, fan culture and the neutralization of deviance. Yale Journal of Sociology, 953–996. Retrieved October 28, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=84858236