Agricultural extension

Agricultural extension generally refers to the application of scientific and other academic knowledge to farming and ranching. However, the term is more often applied to the provision of educational resources to farmers and ranchers to stimulate agricultural production and serve the public interest. These resources, which are typically provided through programs run by governments or development aid agencies, often maintain ties with universities and other academic institutions. Extension programs may focus on issues related to production, such as increasing crop yields, maintaining soil quality, and preserving surpluses. Extension programs can help farmers adopt new technologies and methods. These programs can also aid farmers and ranchers with business-related issues, such as financing, distribution, and marketing.

While these programs benefit farmers, they serve the larger goal of addressing a community’s food needs by helping farms operate at maximum efficiency and produce enough food for the local population. In addition to local and national extension programs, international aid agencies have worked with agricultural communities in low- and middle-income countries in promoting sustainable development and helping local producers participate in the global economy.

Background

Governments have adopted policies to defend populations against starvation throughout history and across the world. Though these campaigns may receive less attention than military conquests, these policies have enabled the survival and prosperity of states. Evidence shows state efforts to provide food producers with useful knowledge in ancient Mesopotamia, China, Greece, and elsewhere. The modern concept of extension emerged in the nineteenth century in Europe and North America. Academics and farmers began forming agricultural clubs and societies to share knowledge, while governments sought ways to avert crises. A potato blight in Europe in the 1840s highlighted the need for government intervention. This blight led to the Irish Potato Famine (1845–1852), which killed about one million people and drove migration to North America. Policymakers and academics promoted extension as a strategy to avoid such calamity.

In the United States, federal legislators passed the Morrill Act in 1862 to grant land to each state to establish an agricultural college. Schools created through this system are often referred to as land-grant universities. The program was bolstered with the passage of the Hatch Act and the Agricultural Experiment Station Act in 1887, which created grants for colleges to host research farms. Congress passed the second Morrill Act in 1890 to ensure Black Americans had access to land-grant universities, leading to the establishment of many historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs). Federal extension efforts were further refined with the passage of the 1914 Smith-Lever Act, which directs the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) to work with land-grant universities as well as state and local governments. The Smith-Lever Act created the Cooperative Extension System (CES), which maintains offices in different states, and formalized the 4-H club as a national organization to promote youth involvement in agriculture. The Research and Marketing Act of 1946 directed funds to research agricultural marketing and disseminate advice to producers. In 2008 Congress created the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) as a research and education agency within the USDA.

In the second half of the twentieth century, many countries gained their independence from European imperialists. Many of these countries faced economic problems and sought to stimulate their agricultural production. International development groups, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN), implemented extension programs, often with the cooperation of local governments, as a way to help these countries achieve food security, economic growth, and stability. The World Bank launched its Train and Visit System in the 1970s to improve extension programs by focusing more on local needs, maximizing existing resources, and strengthening communication between producers, workers, government officials, researchers, and program administrators. In the 1980s the FAO introduced the Farmer Field School model, bringing together local farmers for weekly education exchanges. National governments contribute to international extension programs by directing funds toward the work of organizations such as the US Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).

Overview

In the twenty-first century, extension programs have evolved to address contemporary challenges while still focusing on the traditional goals of promoting innovation in agriculture and stimulating output. Extension programs have often been directed toward rural small-scale agricultural operations, but rural populations in many regions have decreased as urbanization has accelerated around the world. As a result, administrators have introduced programs tailored to urban and suburban residents. Increased corporatization of agriculture has led to the participation of private commercial enterprises. These firms do not prioritize the interests of small-scale farming operations, but extension programs can intervene to support smaller operations and help them remain competitive.

Teaching communities about technological innovations has long been a focus of extension programs. In 2008 Congress amended the Smith-Lever Act through the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act. The amendment allows for the funding of New Technologies for Ag Extension (NTAE), a grants program open to all land-grant universities to aid in their technology- and software-related programs. Some critics of extension programs, particularly those led by international development agencies in low- and middle-income countries, have expressed concern that emphasis on technology can undermine local traditions and encourage reliance on foreign aid. Technology enthusiasts have expressed hope that advances in information technology can help reduce reliance on bureaucracy and improve direct communication between the extension program agencies and the communities with whom they work.

External factors have forced modern extension programs to adapt. Public health crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, create obstacles to the delivery of services. Security issues complicate extension programs in areas experiencing political instability. Environmental challenges, such as those related to climate change, have rendered some previous approaches impractical or ineffective. Extension programs have responded to the emergence of these daunting problems by continuing the traditions of applying scientific principles and focusing on cooperative efforts. Research has increasingly explored social and ecological sustainability, including the preservation of indigenous practices and increased localization of administrative responsibilities.

Bibliography

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