Horticulture Societies

This article will provide an overview of horticulture societies. The article describes the emergence of horticulture societies from hunting and foraging societies and the impact horticulture has had on human development. An overview of horticulturalists in the modern era is also provided. This article also explores the social organization of horticulture societies, examining such factors as population and kinship, the division of labor and power, and social equality. In addition, the economies of horticulture societies are examined. Horticulture societies are generally marked by smaller communities, interdependence, and moderate economic means. In order to flourish, horticulture societies are dependent upon ideal climate conditions for raising plants and supplement their economies with trade and commerce. When necessary, horticulture societies will initiate conflict and warfare to defend or obtain ideal land or necessary resources. In addition, horticulture societies have often developed advanced planting techniques and specific tools to aid the extensive labor that is required to plant, tend, and harvest gardens and crops. Finally, this article discusses some of the applications of horticulture to modern life. In the twenty-first century, horticulture is often practiced as a hobby or even used as a therapeutic technique for promoting important human developmental processes and life skills. The practice of horticulture is supported throughout the world by organized horticultural societies, which are devoted to the study and culture of cultivated plants.

Keywords: Agriculture; Agroecosystem; Crop Domesticating; Cultivation; Deforestation; Foraging; Harvesting; Horticulture; Human Ecology; Hunter-Gatherers; Irrigation; Plant Reeds; Sedentism; Sewing; Tillage; Vegetation

Horticulture Societies

Overview

Horticulture is the practice of farming in small regions without the use of heavy machinery or equipment used by large-scale agricultural operations. These farming cycles include the planting and tending of domesticated plants for food and raising small farm animals such as pigs and chickens for food or to sell or trade. Some horticultural societies enhance their dietary needs by hunting wild animals and/or foraging uncultivated plants between growing seasons. Because of the wider range of food and trade options, horticulturalist societies tended to grow larger than other early groups such as foragers and pastoralists. Usually, horticulture populations have at least one to ten people per square mile, although communities can develop to a few dozen people or even a few hundred people per square mile (Lenski, G., Lenski, J., & Nolan, 1999). With the exception of aquatic foraging, horticulture is generally more productive than foraging. While many horticulture populations are essentially subsistence farmers, some of these communities stock surpluses of produce to sell or trade in order to obtain items that cannot be made by hand.

Although horticulture societies are on the decline, the practice is still evident in lush or tropical forest areas such as the Amazon Basin, the mountainous regions of South and Central America, and in some regions of Central Africa and Southeast Asia (O'Neil, 2008). Before population densities rose to higher levels and societies developed more intensive farming methods, horticulture was a common practice throughout the world.

Further Insights

Emergence of Horticulture Societies

The movement from hunting and gathering to horticulture was an important change in the development of civilization. This shift was facilitated by the invention of basic tools, the discovery of fire, and the development of agriculture. The rise of horticulture societies is significant because crop cultivation and animal domestication allowed for food surpluses, which enabled the populations of these societies to flourish, and facilitated the development of organized communities, division of labor, and the abilities to engage in selling and trading and even to form central systems of governance.

Horticulture, which is based upon the intensive use of plants for human purposes, is inextricably linked to the beginnings of agriculture. While horticulturalists raise plants for food, they also cultivate plants for artistic, medicinal, ornamental, and even technological purposes. Early horticulturalists were often members or servants of the wealthy, as most societies were still largely focused on plant cultivation for purposes of food consumption rather than for decorative or artistic purposes. However, the most developed ancient civilizations are known to have cultivated lush, beautiful gardens that were watered by complex irrigation systems.

Impact of Horticulture on Human Population

Human populations have been rapidly growing for millennia. This growth has resulted in a higher demand for food. To support this growth, early foraging societies had to develop farming practices that could sustain their need for a steady supply of food. In the earliest organized societies, horticulture and pastoralism enabled communities to develop plant and animal food supplies that were sufficient to sustain their populations. However, as the human population continued to grow, intensive agriculture became a necessity. As horticulture and plant cultivation became increasingly sophisticated, there was a corollary rise in the development of towns and cities and trade and commerce.

As cities and urban populations developed, people steadily became less dependent on the environment. In addition, as demand grew for housing, roads, and transportation routes, land that was once used for horticulture was transformed. Farmland was developed to support growing societies, and waterways were used to irrigate land to provide water for people and crops. Some plant species were considered undesirable and eradicated, while others were adapted through genetic selective breeding to be more nutritious or practical for human use. Over time, many of these plants have become the domesticated food plants that we recognize today.

Horticulturalists in the Modern Era

Horticultural practices became less common during the Dark Ages. During this era, these practices survived largely in monastic gardens and communities. However, with the rise of feudalism, horticulture began to flourish once again. The nobility and wealthiest members of society had the means to procure extensive and exotic plant species, which were tended to by serfs and forms of forced labor. Over time, emerging working and middle classes adopted some of these horticulture practices, and plant cultivation became a pleasant pastime rather than a form of subsistence agriculture.

The rise of the Industrial Revolution in the nineteenth century led to the industrialization of agriculture through machines and tools as well as through fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides (Relf, 1992). During this same era, the human population began increasing exponentially, putting massive food production and transportation in ever greater demand. At the same time, plant breeding and biotechnology enabled the production of novel and heartier plant species. In the twenty-first century, plant cultivation is studied in many government and academic programs. In addition, scientists continue to examine how modified foods from plant breeding experiments can affect the nutritional needs of the human population.

Social Organization

The demographics of horticulture societies are influenced by many factors. The size of the population, the degree of each household's self-sufficiency, and the purchasing power of the members of the society have a significant impact on a horticulture society's ability to flourish or remain at a level of basic subsistence. In addition, the physical environment can affect the ease with which plant products can be sold or traded, and the diet of these societies can be affected by the social, cultural, and ethnic characteristics of the community. Generally, horticulture societies are dominated by females and are fairly closely knit. Gender, age, and economic self-sufficiency are also important factors in the social structure of these societies.

Population & Kinship

Historically, horticultural societies tended to be small farming communities. Over time, they developed in population density, and their increased numbers provided them an advantage over hunting-and-gathering societies when competing for territory and arable land, and this was one of the factors that led to the decline of hunting-and-gathering societies.

Horticulture societies have larger populations than hunting-and-gathering societies primarily because of their ability to cultivate food to supplement animals and game brought in from hunting expeditions. Even small horticultural societies are generally able to provide enough food resources to be self-sufficient, while larger communities often engage in trade and commerce to obtain a wider variety of food and household goods.

The work of women is extremely important in horticulture societies. Women do most of the cultivation of crops and plants. In addition, kinship ties are generally extremely important in horticultural societies because they maintain a solid basis for the community's social structure. Many of the connections among kin are based on traditional and sometimes complex rules that can be deeply embedded in a society. In addition, kinship allegiances function to aid members of the extended family by providing them with economic support as well as protection against enemies.

Division of Labor in Horticulture Societies

Horticultural societies tend to be less patriarchal than other types of societies, probably because women play a major role in food production (Lenski, G., Lenski, J., & Nolan, 1999). Men generally perform the more physical work of clearing land and hunting, while women maintain the primary responsibility of planting, tending. and bringing in the yield of the crops. Because of the significant role of women in all aspects of plant cultivation and production, their efforts are generally considered a critical element of the success of horticulture societies. In addition, women play a significant role in marketing the yields of their crops or other simple handmade items. In larger horticulture societies, commercial horticulture offers a more sustainable source of income, especially from specialty crops such as premium coffee, tea, or cotton. In these communities, the labor necessary to plant, tend, and harvest the crops is significantly greater, and men tend to play a larger role in these processes.

Power & Social Equality

The power of leaders in many horticultural societies is quite limited. Even larger horticulture communities remain relatively autonomous compared to neighboring societies. Leaders of horticulture societies depend more on persuasion than coercion as few societies possess an internal police force to monitor or penalize individual behavior. In addition, these communities are marked more by interdependence and conformity with social mores for the sake of survival and self-preservation than by delineated systems of governance. However, the kinship allegiances among horticulture societies can provide important ties to power and prosperity.

In addition to political power, social inequality is minimized because extreme instances of prosperity or centralized power are generally absent. Yet, varying levels of status are not uncommon, with religious or governmental leaders elevated to a higher status along with heads of wealthy family groups. However, the more advanced the economic and technological aspects of a horticulture society, the greater social inequality tends to be.

Economy

Horticulture societies are only sustainable as long as plant cultivation and hunting can support their populations. As their numbers grow, these communities must seek new land to farm that is relatively close in proximity to the security of their societies. If horticulturalists are unable to practice sustainable farming methods base on crop alternation and rotation, the fertility of the soil can be quickly depleted. This generally occurs in regions that suffer from overpopulation or government practices that restrict poor, urban families to farming on small plots of land. Thus, in order for horticulture societies to thrive, members must be able to practice sustainable planting techniques. To subsidize their living and to secure the most arable land, horticulture societies may engage in various forms of trade and commerce or even warfare.

Ideal Climate & Geographic Conditions

Horticulture is generally practiced in regions with humid, tropical conditions and where temperatures are mild and rainfall plentiful. Because these regions generally remain mild throughout cold seasons, plants may grow year-round or during prolonged growing seasons during the year. In addition, because plants grow quickly, vegetation that is not cultivated generally withers and decomposes rapidly, which provides fresh nutrients to fertilize the soil for future growing cycles (Relf, 1992).

Because of this plant life cycle, most horticulture societies depend on rich soil and favorable climate conditions, and thus are generally inappropriate for tropical forest areas. However, as urban development creeps further into agricultural regions, these communities are often pushed into forest areas and other regions with conditions that are not ideal for plant cultivation. In areas with poor soil quality, horticulturalists are forced to plow and work the soil, exposing it to the elements and increasing erosion. In addition, fertilizer must be routinely added to the soil in large quantities, and crops must be rotated frequently to avoid fungal infections or consumption by insects or other parasites. To avoid such losses, frequent application of pesticides and herbicides are often necessary.

In addition, when trees are cut down in heavily forested areas, many of the nutrients in the soil are depleted. The loss of tropical forests also eliminates the canopy of protection these trees provide against chronic sunlight or drenching rains. For these reasons, when horticulturalists are pushed into forested regions, they usually leave large trees standing near their farm plots because tree roots provide stability for the soil. In addition, planting many different species on a plot of land helps ensure that the soil remains protected with vegetation growth, which safeguards against runoff of fertile layers of topsoil and erosion.

Because of the difficulties in preparing the soil for plant cultivation, horticulture communities may survive in these regions without developing into larger and more profitable agricultural societies. While horticulture is labor intensive, it is less capital intensive and thus better suited for regions with numerous workers but lower capital requirements.

Trade & Commerce

Horticulture societies frequently subsidized their economic needs through participation in trade and commerce. They may use formal records to keep track of planting and plant-breeding techniques that lead to higher plant yields, so that excess produce can be consistently sold or traded for livestock or household goods. This participation in trade and commerce enables horticulture societies to become relatively autonomous, with many members producing much of what is used in the community's daily life.

In addition, innovations in the domestic arts, like pottery and weaving, allow for craft specializations. As families earn profits through the manufacture and sale of these products, these profits can be reinvested in simple forms of equipment or superior raw materials that can in turn be used to produce better quality products that yield higher returns. Thus, many horticulture societies have moved away from their dependence upon plant cultivation by engaging in local and regional trade and commerce.

Warfare

Warfare is seen more readily among horticulture societies than hunting-and-gathering communities. Within horticulture societies, combat can be a psychic substitute for the excitement of hunting, as well as a method of population control. In addition, population growth and the scarcity of new land can lead to more intense conflicts, which are resolved through warfare.

A significant factor in the warfare practiced by horticulture societies is the use of metal weapons. The development of metalworking techniques enables these societies to make not just plows, scythes, and other tools, but also swords, shields, and helmets. Thus, metalworking enabled horticulture societies to more effectively work the land as well as expand their territory through warfare (Lenski, G., Lenski, J., & Nolan, 1999).

Labor

Because plant yields drop as fields are depleted of nutrients, horticulturalists frequently seek out new fields or replant ones that have lain fallow. They clear new and old, overgrown fields using a "slash-and-burn" practice, in which vegetation and small trees are cut down and then burned. Although this technique provides a layer of fertilizer to the soil through the ash that remains after the brush and tress are burned, if no additional fertilizer is added to the fields, the soil is generally only productive for a few years.

The practice of horticulture is also labor intensive because many of these societies lack large animals to assist in clearing the land and plowing fields. Likewise, the lack of mechanized farming equipment renders these communities totally dependent on manual labor and small farming tools to prepare the soil and plant crops. Without modern chemical pesticides and herbicides or advanced irrigation techniques, the fields are often worked until the soil is depleted. Because this form of farming is so labor intensive, many horticulture societies later develop into more sophisticated agrarian societies that use animal labor, and often slave labor, to plant crops across vast tracts of land.

Multi-Cropping

Horticulture is a different practice than agriculture, which involves the use of plows and other equipment to cultivate large fields on a continual basis. Horticulturalists generally use less sophisticated tools to develop gardens that grow in small areas and then are left after a few years once the soil is no longer useful (O'Neill, 2008). Plows are advantageous because they circulate the soil and maintain a field's fertility more effectively than horticulturalists' tools, which can only reach the highest layers of the soil. As a result, horticulturalists' plots are depleted much more quickly. Because horticulturalists must routinely abandon land to allow it time for the soil to be replenished with nutrients for future crops, these societies are generally limited in the amount of land they can cultivate, which may limit the food supply to sustain population growth.

When people in industrialized nations first encountered indigenous horticulture societies, they tended to assume that these societies were relatively unproductive and ignorant of soil nutrients. Further, they believed that slash-and-burn technique used to clear land for crop cultivation was destructive to the environment. However, indigenous horticultural societies developed farming skills and a knowledge of the impact of their cultivation techniques that was both detailed and practical. Multi-cropping is one practice horticulturalists use to improve plant productivity (O'Neill, 2008). Horticulturalists plant several different types of crops in the same hole. As a result, the seeds grow alongside one another symbiotically. For example, if corn, beans, and squash seeds are planted together, the growing corn stalk provides a framework to support the bean plant as it climbs the stalk and the squash vines spreading over the soil prevents the growth of weeds. Some horticultural societies grow numerous crops in the same field. As a result, their tangled gardens look very different from the rows of crops found in agrarian or industrial societies. Multi-cropping enables these societies to have experience harvesting of various crops throughout the year, while the plants themselves protect the soil from depletion and erosion from the harsh sun and heavy rains.

Tool Manufacture

Some advanced horticultural societies gained the knowledge and ability to make metal tools, which were far superior to the handmade tools made from wood and other natural resources by simple horticulture communities. The discovery of metallurgy by advanced horticulture communities enabled these societies to greatly increase their ability to cultivate and capitalize on the natural resources of their environments. Most metal tools and weapons were made from metallic substances such as copper, although the process of manufacturing these products took specialized knowledge that few possessed. As a result, metal tools and weapons remained in limited supply, with similar items made from wood and stone more abundant.

Conclusion

Horticulture societies evolved as early hunting-and-gathering societies became stable communities supported by plant cultivation. Horticulture societies are generally characterized by small populations, a social structure based on family allegiances and kinship, and a division of labor whereby women are largely responsible for planting and cultivating gardens. The remaining horticulture societies that exist throughout the world generally supplement their plant cultivation with various forms of trade and commerce. In addition, although early horticulture societies were often reliant upon simple tools, modern horticulture societies are able to utilize advanced planting techniques and machinery to aid in planting, tending, and harvesting larger gardens and crops.

Terms & Concepts

Agriculture: The practice cultivating land to raise crops; often supplemented with breeding and raising livestock.

Agroecosystem: The application of ecological concepts and principles to the practice of creating sustainable agricultural techniques.

Crop Domestication: A process of selecting and adapting a wild species to cultivated environments.

Cultivation: The act of raising or growing plants, particularly on a large scale, to promote the growth of a culture or people.

Deforestation: The process of divesting or clearing an area of forest or trees.

Foraging: The acquisition of food by hunting, fishing, or the gathering of plant matter.

Harvesting: The act or process of gathering a crop.

Horticulture: The small-scale cultivation of flowers or edible plants to sustain families or communities.

Human Ecology: A branch of sociology that studies the relationships between human civilizations and their impact on their surrounding physical and social resources.

Hunter-Gatherers: A society whose primary subsistence method involves gathering edible plants from and hunting animals in the wild. This type of society does not domesticate plants or animals.

Irrigation: The process of using ditches, pipes, or streams to bring water to nourish crops.

Plant Foods: Foods obtained solely from plants and their derivatives, such as grains, fruits and vegetables, and oils.

Sedentism: The transition from a nomadic way of life into permanent, year-round settlements.

Sowing: The process of planting seeds, generally either through manually casting seeds over prepared ground or through the use of a tool or machine.

Tillage: The agricultural preparation of soil for crop cultivation.

Vegetation: A general term describing the plant life of a region.

Bibliography

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Godoy, R., et al. (2008). The effect of rainfall during gestation and early childhood on adult height in a foraging and horticultural society of the Bolivian Amazon. American Journal of Human Biology, 20, 23–34. Retrieved March 30, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=28055803&site=ehost-live

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O'Neil, D. (2008). Horticulture. In, Patterns of Subsistence: Classification of Cultures Based on the Sources and Techniques of Acquiring Food and Other Necessities. Retrieved March 30, 2009 from Palomar College, http://anthro.palomar.edu/subsistence/sub%5f4.htm

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Piperno, D. R. (2011). The origins of plant cultivation and domestication in the New World tropics. Current Anthropology, S453–S470. Retrieved October 23, 2013, from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=66998650

Ramakrishnan, P. (2008). Sustainable mountain development: The Himalayan tragedy. Current Science, 92, 308–316. Retrieved March 30, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=24949826&site=ehost-live

Smith, E., Mulder, M., Bowles, S., & Hill, K. (2011). Wealth inequality in foraging, horticultural, pastoral, and agricultural populations. Current Anthropology, 52, 579–580. Retrieved October 23, 2013, from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=66857620

Suggested Reading

Coolen, H. (2006). The meaning of dwellings: An ecological perspective. Housing, Theory & Society, 32, 185–201. Retrieved March 30, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=23173179&site=ehost-live

Norton, H. (2011). Horticulture societies. In Salem Press (Eds.),Sociology reference guide. Pasadena, CA: Salem Press.

Peregrine, P. (2004). Cross-cultural approaches in archaeology: Comparative ethnology, comparative archaeology, and archaeoethnology. Journal of Archaeological Research, 12, 281–309. Retrieved March 30, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=14333698&site=ehost-live

Poincelot, R. (2001). Newswatch. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 19, 3. Retrieved March 30, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=8790275&site=ehost-live