Tohono O'odham
The Tohono O'odham are Indigenous peoples primarily located in southern Arizona, near the U.S.-Mexico border, with a population of approximately 28,000 as of 2024. Their name translates to "desert people," reflecting their deep connection to the arid landscape they inhabit. Historically, they were known as Papago, a name given by Spanish explorers in the 17th century, but they officially adopted the name Tohono O'odham in 1986. The Tohono O'odham have a rich cultural history, with evidence of their presence in the region dating back around 11,000 years and connections to the ancient Hohokam civilization.
The Tohono O'odham experienced significant changes due to colonial and U.S. policies, including the introduction of the reservation system in the 19th century. Their largest reservation, Sells, spans over 2.8 million acres and is the second largest in the United States. Despite facing challenges such as limited infrastructure and increased border security, many Tohono O'odham maintain their traditional practices, including farming and community governance through a tribal council system. The construction of the U.S.-Mexico border wall has created additional complications, disrupting the lives of those who historically moved freely across the border and damaging sensitive environmental areas. The Tohono O'odham continue to navigate their identity and resilience in the face of modern challenges.
Tohono O'odham
- CATEGORY: Tribe
- CULTURE AREA: Southwest
- LANGUAGE GROUP: Piman (Uto-Aztecan)
- PRIMARY LOCATION: South-central Arizona
- POPULATION SIZE: 28,000 (2024 Tohono O'odham Nation)
The Tohono O’odham are Indigenous American people that live predominantly in Southern Arizona along the United States border with Mexico. The Indigenous name is translated as “desert people.” The Tohono O’odham were named by Spanish explorers as the Papago. In 1986 the official name of the Indigenous group was changed to Tohono O'odham. Evidence of the Tohono O’odham has been collected dating as far back as eleven thousand years. Some have assessed the Tohono O’odham as descendants of the ancient Hohokam, an extinct agricultural people who had learned to irrigate the desert employing a series of canals.
After first encountering Tohono O’odham peoples in the late seventeenth century, early Spanish explorers, which included military personnel and clergy, considered these Indigenous persons to be peaceful farmers and accepting of newcomers. By 1762, Spanish missions had begun a process of replacing the Indigenous culture of the desert people. The United States continued the process after 1848 when it acquired Tohono O’odham territory from Mexico. In the 1870s, the United States introduced the reservation system to the Tohono O’odham. They began to live on the reservations of Sells, San Xavier, Ak-Chin, and Gila Bend. Sells is their largest reservation.
The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 set the terms for the Tohono O’odham organization of their reservation into eleven political districts; the Indigenous group acquired 650 acres of additional land in 2009 and established a twelfth district, the Hia-Ced District near Why, Arizona, in 2012. Each district has its own council, from which two members are elected to represent it on the Tohono O’odham Tribal Council. In addition to the twenty-two council members, a chair, vice-chair, secretary, and treasurer are elected at large by the Indigenous group.
Many Tohono O’odham live and work outside the reservations in towns and cities. The majority choose to live on the reservations and continue to farm, work in mines, or work at schools, stores, or other facilities. The Tohono O'odham, however, have also developed a strong presence in the gaming industry, operating five casinos. They accomplish this despite lacking some basic infrastructure themselves, such as roads, water access, and utility services. The Tohono O'odham reservation, which spans more than 2.8 million acres, is the second largest in the United States. Increased security along the US-Mexico border following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, significantly complicated the lives of many Tohono O'odham who lived on the Mexican side of the border and were unable to cross into the Indigenous group's lands in the United States freely. The federal government of Mexico did not officially recognize parcels of Tohono O'odham lands in the northern part of Sonora state until 1996.
The US-Mexico Border Wall
Construction activities undertaken during the first presidential administration of Donald Trump (2017-2021) to erect a border wall between Mexico and the United States caused contention for the Tohono O’odham Nation. Many formerly environmentally protected areas were among the locations where wall activities were conducted. In addition, much of this activity occurred on or near Tohono O'odham lands along the Arizona-Mexico border. Construction efforts included the employment of dynamite, pumping, and cutting of public spaces. Detractors maintained that wall construction caused severe damage to fragile desert areas, including water sources. In addition, the installation of wall structures resulted in physical barriers that separated kindred Tohono O'odham members who lived on both sides of the border. The ancestral land ownership of this nation goes back far earlier than the establishment of the international boundary. For many Tohono O'odham members, the border was previously a notional idea and not one ever restricted by physical barriers.
Bibliography
“About Tohono O’odham Nation.” Tohono O’odham Nation, www.tonation-nsn.gov/about-tohono-oodham-nation. Accessed 7 Dec. 2024.
Erikson, Winston P. Sharing the Desert: The Tohono O'odham in History. University of Arizona Press, 2003.
Marak, Andrae M., and Laura TuennermanAt the Border of Empires: The Tohono O'odham, Gender, and Assimilation, 1880–1934. University of Arizona Press, 2013.
Reznick, Alisa. "Border Wall Scars: ‘It Feels Like If Someone Got a Knife and Dragged It Across My Heart.’" High Country News, 4 Feb. 2021, www.hcn.org/articles/south-borderlands-border-wall-scars-it-feels-like-if-someone-got-a-knife-and-dragged-it-across-my-heart. Accessed 7 Dec. 2024.
"Tohono O’odham Nation." San Xavier Del Bac Mission, sanxaviermission.org/tohono-oodham-nation. Accessed 7 Dec. 2024.
“Tohono O'odham Nation Hosts Grand Opening for Newest Gaming Facility.” Indianz.Com, 8 Nov. 2024, indianz.com/News/2024/11/08/tohono-oodham-nation-hosts-grand-opening-for-newest-gaming-facility. Accessed 7 Dec. 2024.
Waiss, Alexis. "Tohono O’odham Leader Says Lack of Infrastructure, Capital Hinders Development." Cronkite News, 1 Mar. 2023, cronkitenews.azpbs.org/2023/03/01/tohono-oodham-leader-says-lack-of-infrastructure-capital-hinders-development. Accessed 7 Dec. 2024.