Bronze Age

Civilizations of the Stone Age were known for their use of stone implements, while the Bronze Age is signified by the use of bronze tools and technology. The Bronze Age is part of the three-tiered classification system of ancient civilizations described by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen: the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. The Bronze Age occurred at overlapping and slightly different times in various parts of the world, due in part to the limited availability of copper-tin ores. Certain places, like western Asia, did not see bronze until trade brought the metal to the region. Notable civilizations during the Bronze Age were the Minoans, Mycenaeans, Hittites, and Egyptians. The Bronze Age dates from 3200–600 bce in Europe and 3300–1200 bce in the Middle East; it collapsed around 1200 bce. What followed was a dark age of decreased literacy and technology and a significant reduction in population.

Brief History

The Bronze Age is characterized by the use of bronze in tools and weaponry. Copper and tin are the raw materials for bronze. Tin ore was a limited natural resource and only occurred in certain areas; therefore some communities only obtained tin ore or bronze items through trade. Ancient Egypt was the central power in the Bronze Age trade network and the Egyptian Kingdom ruled the Nile Valley, Palestine, and southern Syria. Other Bronze Age civilizations were the Mycenaeans, who encompassed Greece and Crete and the Hittites, who inhabited most of Anatolia in southern Turkey and northern Syria.

War was common in the Bronze Age. There were many conflicts among the Egyptians, Hittites, Assyrians, Mycenaeans, and other empires that rose and fell over the centuries. Rulers used military conquest to expand their territories and power and to acquire knowledge and new technology. War was also a driver of economic growth. Kingdoms also used diplomacy, deploying diplomats so rival communities could talk to each other and resolve differences. These kingdoms would establish family relationships, such as arranging a marriage to end a war; in this way, conflict would end and trade could resume, at least for a time.

The early Bronze Age can be traced to Mesopotamia. In 3000 bce new trade networks were developed, and gradually southern Mesopotamia became highly developed and urbanized. Other areas were integrated into this trade network including the Middle East and Anatolian regions, and later Turkey and Greece. Archaeologists credit the early Bronze Age with the origin of the first European civilization. Important advances included stratified society accompanied by status objects, urbanization, improved architecture, and organization of construction and community structure. Further emerging developments were standard measuring systems and mass production of items such as pottery. Moreover, the climate was favorable for continuous agriculture, possibly enabling year-round farming that led to consistent population growth. In some places, the task of growing food was abandoned and inhabitants took up other professions—instead of growing their own food, they could acquire it through barter and trade.

Overview

During the late Neolithic period (8500–4500 bce) weaponry like axes, spearheads, and arrows were made of stone, such as obsidian or flint. These items were used for hunting and warfare, although warfare was likely limited to raids and small skirmishes. Violence increased with the development of agriculture and more economic and social contact between communities. Societies emerged composed of hundreds of thousands guarded by elite warriors led by a single ruler. Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (today known as Iraq) gave rise to Sumer, one of the first civilizations to have city-states ruled by a king. By 2700 bce city states had sophisticated administrations that oversaw provisions for standing armies of 600 to 700 soldiers. The first recorded military dictatorship occurred under the rule of Sargon the Great (2300 bce) who united all of Mesopotamia with his force of 5,400 men. Sumer was an advanced early Bronze Age civilization. Although the spear was a common weapon, troops also used axes or daggers. Copper helmets and shields were the main defenses.

Copper is a soft metal, found in its natural state and easy to work with like gold or silver, but it must be hardened by using an alloy, such as arsenic or tin. Bronze was the first man-made copper alloy, created by adding tin to copper. This combination was hard enough to make a good weapon and bronze weaponry began to be distributed to soldiers. Some elite troops even had bronze body armor. Copper was plentiful in Anatolia, Iran, and the Levant, yet less plentiful in Egypt and Mesopotamia. The desire for copper was likely the force behind early imperialism; if copper could not be had through trade it was likely acquired with military force. A cycle developed where more desire for metal led to bigger armies, which needed more metal for equipment.

Trade is the act of buying, selling, or exchanging goods and services, and trade routes were used by traveling traders (usually caravans) or merchant ships. Trade and diplomacy were a means of cross-cultural exchange that served as a form of what we could call today international relations. For instance, artists traveled between Crete and Egypt and their works can be found in both geographical locations.

The Bronze Age is signified by an increase in competition for natural resources, expansion of agriculture, and competition of trade routes primarily to finance political objectives. There were many discoveries, innovations, and achievements: the Great Pyramid of Giza, the potter’s wheel in Mesopotamia, the chariot and indoor plumbing in central Asia are but a few.

To the west of Mesopotamia was the Mycenaean Empire, whose military invaded Greece (2000 bce) and this gave rise to the Greek language. The largest city during this time (Middle Helladic Period) was Mycenae. The Mycenaeans traded with the Minoans on Crete and eventually usurped the island. Earthquakes, crop failures, and civil and interstate wars cumulatively worked to bring about the end of the Bronze Age. A dark age characterized by mass migrations as entire communities fled war and draught, in addition to reduction in population and the loss of literacy and knowledge.

Bibliography

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