Colonialism
Colonialism is a practice in which one state or group exerts control over another territory and its inhabitants, characterized by political dominance, occupation by settlers, and economic exploitation. Historically, colonialism has roots in ancient civilizations, such as the Roman Empire, but it is most often associated with the European colonial period from the sixteenth to the mid-twentieth centuries. During this time, European powers established colonies across Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Australasia, primarily to exploit resources and labor for economic gain.
The cultural impacts of colonialism remain significant, with former colonies often reflecting the influence of their colonizers in aspects like language, education, and political systems long after independence. The process of decolonization, which accelerated after World War II, involved both peaceful transitions and violent struggles, leading to the emergence of sovereign nations from former colonies. However, many argue that the legacies of colonialism persist, evolving into neocolonialism—a scenario where developed nations maintain substantial influence over less developed nations, even after formal independence.
Various forms of colonialism exist, including settler, exploitative, surrogate, internal, and cultural colonialism, each with unique characteristics and impacts. Cultural colonialism, in particular, refers to the dominance of a foreign culture over local traditions, often perpetuated through economic means rather than military force. As globalization continues, cultural colonialism has shifted focus to the spread of dominant cultures, particularly that of the United States, affecting local preferences and identities worldwide.
Colonialism
The term “colonialism” refers to a scenario in which a state or group has power over another territory and its people. The practice of colonialism typically encompasses the development of political policies used to dominate or control a subjugated people and geographic area, the occupation of the territory with settlers, and the economic exploitation of the territory.
Colonialism has existed since ancient times. The Roman Empire, for example, colonized parts of western Europe, Africa, and Asia. In the twenty-first century, however, the term is commonly used in reference to the European colonial period, which lasted from the sixteenth century to the mid-twentieth century. The period began when European powers such as Denmark, England, France, Portugal, Spain, and the Netherlands established colonies in Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Australasia. “Colonialism” also refers to policies developed in order to manage colonies and their resources.
Background
Colonial policies were first developed to enrich the economy of the colonizing or parent nation. Typically this included treating colonies as sources of raw material and exploited labor. Colonialism also has cultural aspects, as imperial powers traditionally disseminated their national culture within their colonies. Thus, it is common for a former European colony to display the cultural influence of the former parent nation—often in the form of architecture, political and educational systems, and language—long after gaining its independence. The type of economic development and closeness of cultural contact between colony and parent nation also influences the ways in which cultural exchange played out in the colonies.
The time and length of colonization has also been important. For example, many early colonies, particularly in the Americas, gained their independence earlier than other colonies worldwide. The United States declared its independence in 1776, and many Latin American and Caribbean colonies gained their independence in the early nineteenth century. Many other nations remained colonies late into the twentieth century.
After 1945, a wave of anticolonial movements spread across the world. European empires, debilitated after World War II, gradually agreed to emancipate their former colonies. Many of these former colonies became sovereign nations with the support of international organizations such as the United Nations. Some decolonization processes were peaceful, while others involved civil unrest and years of war, such as the Vietnam War in former Indochina and the Algerian War in Algeria, both former French colonies.
Decolonization was seldom a smooth process and eventually gave way to neocolonialism. The term “neocolonialism” describes the practice by a developed nation of retaining a robust economic, political, and cultural influence over a less developed nation. Usually a nation subjected to neocolonialism is a sovereign nation; however, its political, economic, judicial, or cultural practices and policies may effectively be dominated by another, more developed nation. While some scholars argue that colonialism is over, others suggest that its final stage is neocolonialism, which may be its most problematic stage.
Overview
Different types of colonialism exist, although its various manifestations often overlap. Among the most common types of colonialism are settler colonialism, exploitative colonialism, surrogate colonialism, internal colonialism, and cultural colonialism. Settler colonialism involves human migrations from one country to another. It is traditionally fueled by political, economic, or religious reasons. Settler colonialism is a long-term process that has occurred since ancient times. Many groups migrate with the purpose of settling elsewhere and establishing economic and political systems that will give them ruling power. Not all migrating groups, however, arrive with the intention of staying or colonizing the local population. Although colonialism as a social system and the practice of settler colonialism may overlap, they remain separate phenomena.
Exploitative colonialism involves a stronger nation accessing colonized resources and controlling their export, typically to the parent state. Its practice varies from the establishment of trading posts to the development of larger and more formal colonies. It is typically linked to coerced or exploitative labor. The term “surrogate colonialism” refers to a colonial system in which a colonizing or formerly colonizing nation encourages a separate group to settle in an area already inhabited by indigenous populations. Internal colonialism is a system in which people belonging to one ethnic group in a region are dominated by another ethnic group.
“Cultural colonialism” refers to the imposition of one culture over another or the replacement of a local culture by a dominant foreign culture. It also refers to internal domination by the culture or ideology of one group over others. Cultural colonialism often remains in effect even after the colony gains its independence. For example, the former Soviet nations continued to be dominated by the Russian language and education system even after the Soviet Union’s collapse, while the legacy of British colonialism is readily apparent in the United States, India, and many other former colonies.
In the early twenty-first century, a dominant culture typically enacts cultural colonialism by way of economic expansion, encouraging local populations to desire the goods offered by the colonizing culture and to imitate its values and behavior. For centuries, instances of such hegemonic phenomena involved dominant European cultures, but the United States ultimately came to fill that role. In many countries, the preference for American cultural and material products, such as popular music and films, gradually replaces the preference for local products. Rather than through military or political occupation, cultural colonialism is accomplished through commercial agreements, trade, and marketing. The worldwide use of English as a standard language for travel and business is an example of a hegemonic cultural process. Many scholars argue that global patterns of economic growth and development remain similar to the political hierarchies established in the colonial era.
Bibliography
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Sartre, Jean-Paul. Colonialism and Neocolonialism. 1964. Trans. Azzedine Hadour, Steve Brewer, and Terry McWilliams. New York: Routledge, 2006. Print.
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