Egyptology
Egyptology is the scholarly study of ancient Egypt, particularly during the era of the pharaohs, spanning from approximately 4500 BCE to 641 CE. The field emerged significantly during Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt, where a group of scholars began documenting the rich culture and artifacts of the region, leading to pivotal discoveries like the Rosetta Stone, which was crucial in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs. Egyptology encompasses a wide range of topics, including religion, art, language, and military practices, and has evolved to include various specialists such as bioarchaeologists and experimental archaeologists.
In recent years, modern technology has revolutionized the field, employing methods like DNA analysis and radiology to enhance understanding and preservation of ancient artifacts. Researchers are now more aware of the importance of careful excavation and documentation, employing advanced techniques such as 3D scanning to create replicas of significant sites, allowing public access while minimizing damage to original artifacts. This approach reflects a more ethically conscious practice compared to some earlier methods, which often involved destructive explorations. Overall, Egyptology continues to captivate both scholars and the public, revealing insights into one of history's most fascinating civilizations.
Egyptology
Egyptology is the study of Egypt during the time of pharaohs. This period is known as pharaonic Egypt (c. 4500 BCE–c. 641 CE). Egyptology developed when the forces of French military leader Napoleon Bonaparte controlled Egypt, and a team of scholars set about documenting the culture and artifacts. Their discoveries included the Rosetta Stone, which was unearthed when an engineering crew was demolishing an ancient wall in the city of Rosetta. This stone enabled scholars to decipher ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs.
Egyptology is both a field of archaeological study and an area of philosophical study. It encompasses religion, art, language, military practices and philosophy, and many other topics. In the twenty-first century, the field is populated with many specialists, such as ceramicists, bioarchaeologists, and zooarchaeologists. Experimental archaeologists may test theories about ancient bread-making techniques, build kilns to try to recreate the conditions and methods of ancient ceramics makers, or attempt to mummify animals. Modern technology, such as DNA analysis and radiology, offers new insights into ancient artifacts, and new techniques allow experts to more carefully preserve finds.
Background
Napoleon rose to prominence and power in France, where he became a military leader in 1793 and later became a war hero. He gained political influence quickly. He served in the Middle East, where troops were sent to thwart Great Britain's trade in the region. He entered Egypt on July 1, 1798, but France suffered a huge defeat in late August in the Battle of the Nile. Following a coup in France in June of 1799, Napoleon and others organized a second coup and took power. By early 1800, he was essentially a dictator. In his quest for power, Napoleon launched numerous attacks, known as the Napoleonic Wars, from 1799 to 1815.
Napoleon's invasion of Egypt was more than a military operation. He brought 400 ships, carrying 54,000 soldiers and sailors. He also brought 150 experts in science, including engineers and scholars. The experts set to work documenting and classifying animals, minerals, and plants. They studied local cultures and economies. Topographical surveys helped to map the region.
Napoleon invited artist Dominique Vivant Denon to Egypt, where he traveled up the Nile with French troops. He was the first to sketch many of the discoveries, including the ruins at Thebes and Dendera. He sketched the temples of Isis, Luxor, Karnac, and many others. When Napoleon saw Denon's portfolio of drawings, he immediately authorized expeditions to study the antiquities of Upper Egypt. Many engineers were eager to explore the sites Denon had recorded in his sketchbooks. The scholars eventually discovered the Valley of the Kings and excavated numerous tombs of pharaohs. Denon returned to France, where he organized information in his journal and sketches. He published Voyage dans la Basse et la Haute Égypte in Paris in 1802.
In addition to documenting their discoveries in writing, many of Napoleon's experts also sketched their finds. Within a few months of beginning their explorations in Egypt, they set in motion a plan to publish what they were uncovering. They returned to France in 1801 with copious notes and numerous artifacts and spent several years organizing their finds. Readers who had gained a taste of Egypt through Denon's work were eager for more. The first volumes of Description de l'Égypte were published in 1809. The twenty-third and final volume of this encyclopedia was published in 1828. Among these books were three volumes that, at more than 43 inches (109 centimeters) tall, were the largest books ever printed. The collection contained more than 800 engravings on Egyptian culture. Many of these depicted the natural history and antiquities of Egypt.
Early Egyptologists were knowledgeable about a wide number of topics in their field. Once experts succeeded in deciphering the language using the Rosetta Stone, however, many began to specialize. By the early twentieth century, the field included many special-focus areas. The discovery of King Tutankhamun's tomb in 1922 further increased public and scientific interest in Egypt.
Overview
Modern Egyptologists are much more careful in their work than many early archaeologists were. For example, during the early nineteenth century, some scholars drilled into the Sphinx to see if it was solid or hollow. Many explorers removed entire tombs and dismantled temple walls, instead of simply recording inscriptions for further study. Some even used explosives to search for tombs, or smashed brick walls to get into tombs. So many artifacts existed that many people involved did not see the need to document the placement of items as they were discovered, or to preserve sites. Many artifacts were simply removed from digs by local people and were sold before any information could be gathered about them. Since the late nineteenth century, however, researchers have documented discoveries in a number of ways. Layers of soil and sand, for example, are removed carefully, so scholars can compare items found in the same strata and document how deeply items are found. This helps researchers date objects. Sites are also photographed to preserve a record of when and where items are located.
Some researchers, in an effort to preserve sites and artifacts while meeting the public demand for access, have begun to replicate antiquities. An exact replica of Tutankhamun's burial chamber, for example, was created using 3-D scanners. These devices record 100 million measured points per square meter. Tut's replica tomb includes the marks of chisels that carved out the chamber, plaster chips, and brown areas of fungus that grew in the wet plaster. This duplicate tomb allows visitors to experience the chamber and artifacts, while preventing further damage to the ancient tomb. Visitors to the replica may also touch objects, an experience denied to those in the original chamber. Similar projects under discussion could surpass the original chambers. For example, portions of the tomb of Seti I are in the collections of numerous museums around the world. By scanning and replicating these items, an archaeological team could reassemble the tomb as it was when found.
A great deal has been learned about mummies by using modern medical technology. X-rays have allowed researchers to see inside the wrappings and fragile tissues. DNA analysis has helped to identify pharaohs. DNA analysis technology is used by molecular geneticists and molecular biologists studying artifacts.
Technical advances have enabled underwater archaeologists to make new discoveries, such as those in the bay of Alexandria. Researchers explore by diving and using devices such as remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and submarines. Geolocation (GPS), computer imaging, and database management tools help document finds. Infrared satellite imaging helps researchers locate potential tomb and settlement sites.
Bibliography
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"Denon Discovers Ancient Egypt." Linda Hall Library, napoleon.lindahall.org/denon.shtml. Accessed 6 July 2017.
Golia, Maria. "The Science of Preserving Egypt's Cultural Heritage." Middle East Institute, 23 June 2014, www.mei.edu/content/article/antiquity%E2%80%99s-eleventh-hour-rescue-science-preserving-egypt%E2%80%99s-cultural-heritage. Accessed 6 July 2017.
"The Napoleonic Invasion of Egypt." Linda Hall Library, napoleon.lindahall.org/learn.shtml. Accessed 6 July 2017.
"Overview of Egyptology." American Research Center in Egypt, www.arceoc.org/Egyptology101‗main.html. Accessed 6 July 2017.
Putnam, James. Egyptology: An Introduction to the History, Culture and Art of Ancient Egypt. Crescent Books, 1990.
"The Rosetta Stone." Linda Hall Library, napoleon.lindahall.org/rosetta‗stone.shtml. Accessed 6 July 2017.
Van Basten, T.D. The Study of Ancient Egyptian History: Egyptology. History Plaza, 2016.
Wilkinson, Richard H., editor. Egyptology Today. Cambridge UP, 2008.