Elgin Marbles
The Elgin Marbles, also known as the Parthenon Marbles, are a significant collection of classical Greek sculptures and reliefs originally created to adorn the Parthenon in Athens during the fifth century BCE. The Marbles were removed in the early 19th century by Thomas Bruce, the seventh Earl of Elgin, who claimed to have obtained permission from the Ottoman authorities to protect them. They were subsequently acquired by the British Museum, where they have since been displayed. The removal of the Marbles has led to ongoing disputes, with the Greek government seeking their return, arguing that Elgin’s acquisition was not legitimate and that the Marbles belong in their cultural context in Greece.
The debate over the Elgin Marbles touches on themes of colonialism, cultural heritage, and ethical museum practices. While the British argue that the Marbles were legally obtained and are preserved in a way that allows for broader academic study, Greece emphasizes the importance of reunifying the sculptures with their original site to provide full historical context. Recent discussions have indicated a willingness from both governments to negotiate potential arrangements, although the matter remains contentious and unresolved. The Elgin Marbles continue to symbolize a larger conversation about the ownership and repatriation of cultural artifacts worldwide.
Elgin Marbles
The Elgin Marbles are a collection of marble statues and reliefs of classical Greek design. They were built in the fifth century Before the Common Era (BCE) to decorate the Parthenon, the remains of which are found in Athens, Greece. For this reason, the Greek government calls them the Parthenon Marbles to highlight their Greek origin. In 1801, a British aristocrat named Thomas Bruce, the seventh earl of Elgin (from which the English name of the sculptures was derived), had several large marble friezes and statues removed from the Parthenon—ostensibly for their protection—and brought back to England. After the British government determined to their satisfaction that Elgin had obtained the marbles legally, they were acquired by the British Museum, where they remain. In the twentieth century, the Greek government pushed England to return the collection as part of an effort to reacquire artworks believed to have been illegally removed from the country. However, England maintained that the statues had been the legal property of the British government since the nineteenth century. Successive British leaders have continued to deny Greek claims.
Background
The original Parthenon was destroyed by invading Persians in 480 BCE, along with most of the buildings that comprised the Athenian citadel called the Acropolis. In 447 BCE, Athenian leader Pericles organized the start of the reconstruction of a massive new Parthenon building that took fifteen years to finish. Architects Ictinus and Callicrates oversaw the structural design, while Phidias, a famed sculptor who was also responsible for the construction of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, directed the internal decoration.
Over the centuries, the Parthenon was subject to fire, destruction by invaders, and damage from the natural elements. In 450 Common Era (CE), the temple was converted to a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary and changed again in 1204 CE into a Catholic Church. In 1458 CE, invading Ottoman Turks transformed the grounds of the Parthenon into a Muslim mosque. Despite the continuing repurposing of the building and its great age, the Parthenon and its marbled sculptures largely remained intact until the seventeenth century.
In 1687, Venetian general Francesco Morosini attacked Athens during the Great Turkish War (1683–1698) between the Muslim Ottoman Empire and various allied European Christian powers. During the siege of Athens by Morosini, the Ottomans used the Parthenon to store gunpowder. On September 27, 1687, Morosini fired upon the Parthenon despite being aware of the volatile materials inside. The resulting explosion severely damaged the Parthenon, including much of the marble works inside. Morosini then plundered the Parthenon, removing some pieces as part of his spoils of war.
By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Parthenon and all its marble masterworks were in a state of increasing decay. The building's roof had been ruined in the 1687 explosion, leaving all the internal artwork exposed to weather and pollution. Tourists would even take small pieces of the Parthenon home as souvenirs of their visit.
In 1799, Thomas Bruce, Lord Elgin, became the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, which controlled Athens and the Parthenon. In 1801, he was able to obtain a firman (a decree issued by Turkish authorities) that allowed him to remove parts of the Parthenon. The document was vague about its intent, and Elgin used it to justify the removal of vast friezes and statuary from the building. Whether the Ottomans had the authority to justify Elgin’s actions remains a point of contention. About 65 percent of the Parthenon's original artwork remained relatively intact. Elgin had roughly half of this material transported to London at his own expense beginning in 1801. Elgin initially exhibited these materials but incurred great personal expense to do so. In 1816, the British Parliament decided to purchase the marbles after a summary investigation left officials satisfied that Elgin was the legal owner. The erection of the marbles at the British Museum created a sensation, renewing interest in classical Greek artwork and helping to inspire a Greek revival in contemporary arts. Since the 1930s, the Elgin Marbles have been housed in a specially designed wing of the British Museum called the Duveen Gallery.
Topic in the Twenty-first Century
Since the early 1980s, Greece has sought the return of the Elgin Marbles. Greek officials argue that the British government has no legal right to keep them in England and that Lord Elgin did not have the authority to remove the sculptures from their country of origin. Greek officials, therefore, argue Elgin could never truly have been their “owner.” Further, they assert Elgin never meant to protect the marbles and only sought to enhance his collection of antiquities. The Greek position is that the marbles should be reunited with other pieces from the Parthenon to offer proper context to the works. In addition, Greek officials argue that important pieces such as the Parthenon friezes could be reunited to form a complete work if returned. In response to British concerns that Greece had no equivalent to the British Museum in which to house the marbles, the Greek government completed the Acropolis Museum in 2009, located next to the Parthenon.
On the other hand, the British argue that Lord Elgin obtained the statues legally and that many similarly salvaged artifacts (including other pieces from the Parthenon) are on display in museums around the world. They also suggest that Lord Elgin's efforts helped safeguard the marbles from their increasingly ruinous and unprotected natural state. The British Museum argues that the marbles' presence at the facility enables them to be studied against the backdrop of more than two million other pieces of artwork and cultural artifacts from around the world, thus offering a vast perspective of cumulative world history.
Greece considered suing the British Museum in an international court of law over the ownership of the Elgin Marbles. By 2015, however, the Greek government had opted to continue to use diplomacy to find an amenable solution to the controversy. A previous attempt by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to mediate the conflict in 2014 was rebuffed by the British Museum, to the frustration of Greece. As part of its attempts to resolve the decades-old conflict, UNESCO passed a resolution to refer to the marble statuary in question as the Parthenon Sculptures to reduce some of the charged feelings associated with the terms "Elgin Marbles" and "Parthenon Marbles." Still, those terms remain in use in their respective countries.
In the twenty-first century, the situation with the Elgin Marbles remained complex. At its core, the issues the Elgin Marbles evoked were deeply rooted in colonialism, the importance of culture, and the ethics of museum collections, especially those entailing the antiquities of specific cultures being displayed in museums far from their origin. In the 2020s, talks once again commenced between the British and Greek governments in an attempt to find a compromise. Although no plans were finalized, the two governments were believed to be discussing a loan arrangement. While the Greeks were open to these discussions, they continued to fervently reject the term "loan," arguing it implied the British were the rightful owners. International pressure and shifting public opinion in Britain highly favored the return of the marbles to Greece, although the situation remained unresolved.
Bibliography
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