Historical archaeology

Historical archaeology is a subdivision of archaeology that studies the material remains of past human societies that also left behind some form of historical records. However, many archaeologists consider this definition too broad and further define historical archaeology as the study of the more modern past, dating back about five or six centuries. In North America, the term is mostly used to refer to the period after the arrival of Christopher Columbus and other European explorers; in Europe, historical archaeology refers to the study of post-medieval societies.

In addition to fieldwork, such as excavating physical remains, historical archaeologists also study written or oral records, eyewitness accounts, and folklore. Common subjects of the discipline include the remains of modern battle sites, colonial settlements in North America, and the effects of European contact on Indigenous peoples.

Brief history

As a whole, archaeology explores the human past through the excavation and study of artifacts and other physical remains. The scientific discipline of archaeology is a relatively modern field, first adopting many of its professional aspects in the mid-nineteenth century. Prior to that, most archaeology was done by amateurs, primarily wealthy individuals who excavated sites and collected artifacts as a hobby. The term archaeology—Greek for “the study of ancient things”—was not used to refer to the science until 1837.

Professional archaeology further developed in the twentieth century with the adoption of a rigorous set of scientific standards and formalized methods for excavating, cataloging, and studying artifacts. As the discipline grew, it also began to specialize, with archaeologists focusing their work on specific time periods, regions, or environments. For example, underwater archaeology studies artifacts from the bottom of rivers, lakes, and oceans. These can include things like shipwrecks and villages that have been submerged. Environmental archaeology examines material remains to study the effect of the environment on the human past. This can mean studying pollen remains to determine if a region was affected by an ancient drought.

Overview

In a broad sense, archaeology can be divided into two major forms: prehistoric and historical archaeology. Prehistoric archaeology involves the study of human societies before the development of writing. Prime examples of this can include the study of early hunter-gatherer burial sites or the stone objects left behind at some of the first human settlements. Without written records, archaeologists must piece together a picture of the past based solely on physical evidence. For instance, the Stonehenge monument in southern England was built over a period of centuries, dating back more than 4,000 years ago. Based on the positioning of the stones and the presence of earthen mounds nearby, archaeologists theorize the site may have served as an astronomical calendar, a religious site, or a burial ground, and may have served multiple purposes.

Historical archaeology concerns the study of human societies that did leave behind some records. The discipline uses these records in conjunction with evidence gathered from excavations to develop more reliable theories on past human societies. An illustration of this method can be found in the Rosetta Stone, a large marble slab discovered in Egypt in 1799. Prior to the discovery, the Egyptian picture-writing system known as hieroglyphics was a mystery to archaeologists. The Rosetta Stone contains the same text written in hieroglyphics, ancient Greek, and an ancient Egyptian written script. By studying the stone, researchers were able to use the Greek text to translate the hieroglyphics for the first time, opening up a new understanding of ancient Egypt.

As archaeology evolved and more and more subdisciplines were added, much of what is considered historical archaeology became increasingly specialized. The study of Egyptian archaeology became known as Egyptology, while the study of ancient Greece and Rome was known as Classical archaeology. Historical archaeology became increasingly connected to the study of human societies from a period of about 1500 CE to the modern era. The term itself was not widely used in this context until 1967 with the founding of the Society for Historical Archaeology. In North America, the term was later refined to refer to the period after the arrival of the Italian explorer and navigator Christopher Columbus in the New World in 1492 and the subsequent contact between Europeans and Indigenous Americans.

An example of an early form of historical archaeology occurred in the 1790s when British officials attempted to locate the original 1604 camp of French explorer Samuel de Champlain. Champlain founded what was then called New France and the British wanted to find his camp to establish the border between the United States and Canada, which they controlled. Other efforts include the nineteenth-century attempts to excavate the house of Myles Standish, a Pilgrim leader who journeyed to Massachusetts on the Mayflower voyage in 1620. Historians also attempted to study Indigenous Americans by examining the remains of their more recent settlements and villages.

The first true organized efforts put into historical archaeology are considered to have occurred in Jamestown, Virginia, the site of the first English settlement in North America in 1607. The first work at the site began in the 1890s, but it was not until the 1930s that significant excavations were conducted. The records of the colony had been well documented and archaeologists were able to use them to help in their study of the lives of the Jamestown settlers and the settlement’s architecture.

Other sites that caught the interest of historical archaeologists were ironworks and factories from the early nineteenth century, long-abandoned prisons and hospitals, and places in the southern United States and the Caribbean where enslaved people lived and worked. Historical battlefields from conflicts such as the Revolutionary War and Civil War are also common subjects of historical archaeology.

The combination of archaeological excavations with written historical accounts can often shed additional light on a subject when the events are disputed. For example, the 1876 Battle of Little Bighorn in Montana where US General George Custer and the Seventh Cavalry were killed was often portrayed as a heroic “last stand” against a group of Indigenous warriors. The Indigenous Americans had long stated that they had easily won the battle in a decisive victory. After historical archaeologists examined evidence at the battle site, they determined the Indigenous accounts were correct, and the battle was significantly one-sided.

In the twenty-first century, modern technology has improved the field of historical archaeology. Archaeologists can explore the remains of ancient societies with greater accuracy in less time and cause less accidental damage to findings than ever before. These tools include drone imaging, magnetometry, laser rangefinders, ground-penetrating radar, and LiDAR (light detection and ranging), among others. These technological advances help researchers discover and preserve history and the evolution of cultures. As scientists better understand the past, they are better able to predict future changes.

Bibliography

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Hall, Martin, and Stephen W. Silliman, editors. Historical Archaeology. Blackwell, 2006.

Kazmeyer, Milton. “Examples of Historical Archaeology.” Classroom, classroom.synonym.com/examples-historical-archaeology-18377.html. Accessed 29 Nov. 2024.

Little, Barbara J. Historical Archaeology: Why the Past Matters. Routledge, 2016.

Ohrt, Kirstin. "Princeton Archaeologists Are Using Cutting-Edge Digital Technologies to Help Reveal the Ancient Past." Princeton University, 9 Apr. 2024, www.princeton.edu/news/2024/04/09/princeton-archaeologists-are-using-cutting-edge-digital-technologies-help-reveal. Accessed 29 Nov. 2024.

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"What Is Historical Archaeology?" Society for Historical Archaeology, sha.org/about-us/what-is-historical-archaeology. Accessed 29 Nov. 2024.