Industrial Societies

With the rise of industrial societies come the spread of mechanization and technology, an increase in manufacturing processes, and the urbanization of communities that are more and more centered on industrial life. Industrial societies experience profound changes to family life as communities begin to reflect the changing labor patterns of factory and industrial work and as work opportunities for women outside the home increase. In addition, in early industrial societies children often work in mills and factories. Industrial societies are generally characterized by rising economic affluence, although this new wealth is not evenly distributed throughout all social classes. Wealthy factory owners and suppliers of raw materials become enormously wealthy, while a middle class emerges as a growing consumer base, bolstered by education, skills, and technological advancements. Meanwhile, the lower classes struggle to work some of the most difficult jobs for the least amount of pay. In developed societies, these economic inequities frequently prompted organized labor to fight back against managers and owners to secure social and labor reforms through government regulation.

Keywords Achieved Status; Ascribed Status; Bureaucracy; Capitalism; Class; Collective Conscience; Economy; Industrial Revolution; Industrial Societies; Industrialization; Information Society; Means of Production

Societies > Industrial Societies

Overview

Industrial societies are characterized by the emergence of industrialization as the primary means of labor, business, and commerce. Industrial societies differ markedly from agricultural societies, wherein members are primarily involved in plant cultivation for their own subsistence. Industrialization emerged first in England in the mid eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries and then swept through Europe and the United States, replacing these formerly agrarian societies with industrial societies centered on the use of machines and non-animal sources of energy to produce finished goods. Industrial societies have continued to develop as a result of technological innovations, leading to high levels of productivity and population growth in cities and urban areas.

With improved technology, labor in industrial societies has become more specialized. In addition, better working conditions and higher wages have resulted in improved standards of living for highly skilled or educated workers. However, not all workers have benefited from these improvements in technology and efficiency. Workers who lack the skills, education, or ability to compete in industrial societies often fall into the lower socioeconomic classes. Thus, while industrial societies experience improved work and productivity efficiencies through the use of machines and technology, they also face growing social inequalities between those who benefit from the industrialization process and those who do not. In response to this tension, a number of secondary groups, such as non-profit organizations, political parties, charities, government agencies, labor unions, and community associations, have been formed to address these inequalities.

Rise of Industrial Societies

The industrial mode of production began with the mechanization of the textile industry in Britain and from there it spread to the entire world. The term "industrial society" originated from the emerging central role of the manufacturing industry in contrast to the previously agrarian society. In its most basic form, an industrial society is a social system in which the mode of production is primarily centered on finished goods manufactured with the aid of machinery. In industrial societies, the largest portion of the workforce is involved in labor activities that involve the mechanized production of goods and services. The following sections will explain the central characteristics of an industrial society: the spread of industrialization, the growth in manufacturing capabilities, and the rise of urbanization.

Spread of Industrialization

The process by which a society becomes highly industrialized generally occurs in stages. These stages are frequently marked by shifts in the demand for raw manufacturing materials. For instance, the demand for coal rose significantly during the early industrialization of Britain as machines and industrial efforts were fueled by vast quantities of coal, marking a significant shift in a society that had previously been heavily dependent upon wood for warmth and power. The abundant coal reserves in Britain helped shift the tides toward coal as a primary fuel source.

In the United States, industrialization also created an increased demand for coal. In addition, however, population growth also led to an increased demand for raw materials such as sugar, cotton, grain, and timber, and this increased demand spurred the mechanization of these industries. This industrialization process prompted the invention of machines that radically transformed the American economy and society, such as the power loom and cotton gin.

Increase in Manufacturing Capabilities

The process of industrialization does more than just replace agrarian modes of life with manufacturing and industry. Industrialization reframes families, housing, leisure activities and even social thought to incorporate industry and efficiency as a major feature of existence. Thus, the social institutions, aspirations, beliefs, and attitudes of industrial societies reflect the importance of industry, work, efficiency, and achievement.

However, a common trait of industrial societies is the displacement of agriculture with manufacturing and industry. As the level of manufacturing increases within a society, the number of people engaged in agriculture decreases. Over time, a working class society is independent of the agricultural process; the society emerges and works for wages to buy products that were once made by hand and in homes in agrarian societies.

As manufacturing capabilities increase, industrial societies begin consuming more manufactured products and goods. And as demand for these goods increases, urban areas become connected through the various means of transportation that facilitate the flow of commerce between manufacturers and consumers and cities and towns. With the development of a society's transportation infrastructure, trade in raw materials and manufactured goods can grow and thereby facilitate the continued rise of the society's economic and industrial strength.

Urbanization

As a society's factories, mills, and other manufacturing facilities grow, individuals and families from rural areas flow into the cities seeking work. Thus, the spread of industrialism and manufacturing stimulates a corollary grown in urban areas. Slowly, industrial societies shift from a primary dependence on land, plant cultivation, and animal husbandry to an economy that is based on manufactured and finished goods produced by machines or in factories in a highly efficient manner. And with the growth in population and economic power, cities begin to expand, and patterns of living change to accommodate the workday.

While cities can be disruptive to families and relationships (for example, a family may leave relatives in rural settings to pursue work in urban areas), city life can also foster the development of relationships and social circles based on shared experiences. Thus, while relationships in rural or agrarian communities may be maintained out of necessity because individuals are often forced to share labor or resources to survive, relationships in urban areas may evolve from shared work responsibilities, residence in the same neighborhood, or the pursuit of common leisure activities. Over time, then, industrial societies become less centered on the relational ties based on family connections and more strongly based on small communities of individuals or acquaintances bound by shared experiences or common interests (Reissman, 1964). Thus, while urbanization can weaken traditional societal bonds, cities can also bring people together into communities of diverse individuals.

Social Organization

In a traditional rural or agrarian economy, the scales of production are small enough that economic power remains centered in homes, communities and cities, with the production of goods generally occurring within the family home. The primary purpose of household production in these societies is to provide for the subsistence of the family; producing goods for trade or sale is only a secondary purpose. Also, in traditional households, men and women are typically responsible for different tasks. Men are primarily involved in managing and cultivating crops and herds, while women oversee domestic responsibilities.

The rise in industrialization effected dramatic changes to the traditional family structure. Men worked longer hours outside the home. Likewise, women also began to work in outside jobs. This enabled families to enjoy a higher standard of living, challenged traditional gender roles, and required families to seek assistance for domestic chores and childrearing. In early industrial societies, before child labor laws were widely enacted, children also worked long hours in manufacturing jobs.

Changes in Family Life

Throughout history, people have largely been dependent upon families and extended kin for safety, physical and emotional support, and labor for gathering food and securing shelter. However, the process of industrialization had a dramatic effect on family units. With it, the family was displaced as the basic unit of society and replaced by the individual (Rosen, 1982). The ties and allegiances to families and lineage began to thin as people sought individual prosperity, freedom, and expression.

In addition, as men and women worked longer hours outside of the home, the distinction between work and family life grew sharper. No longer were men working in family fields and accessible during the day. As a result, family members began to lead increasingly separate lives. Middle- and upper-class men became the dominant providers and were honored for characteristics such as self-improvement, discipline, and a robust work ethic rather than traits that were grounded in concern for community responsibilities and social traditions (Rosen, 1982). In addition, when women entered the workforce, they began to experience a greater degree of autonomy and financial independence. As a result, the dynamics of many families began to shift from being centered around the home to being focused on external involvements, efforts, and influences.

Increased Opportunities for Women

The process of industrialization created increased work opportunities for women. However, for women with children, these same opportunities presented special challenges for childcare. Before, women could perform household chores while rearing children, but as industrialization proceeded and women began working outside of the home, they had to seek suitable alternatives for childcare. Thus, while some married women opted to stay home to care for the children and look after household duties, single women often worked outside the home or sought work doing the domestic duties of married women who left their homes for outside employment.

While women initially worked in domestic and light manufacturing jobs, over time they increasingly entered factories and learned production processes that were once largely under the purview of men. However, the vast majority of women worked in industries, textile mills, garment manufacturing facilities, bakeries, schools, and hospitals. Further, women's access to jobs gave them greater oversight over their earnings and the spending patterns of family incomes. Thus, women became a unique market that manufacturers began to pursue, targeting them through advertisements for clothing, cosmetics, household goods, and food items. In addition, families began to enjoy a higher standard of living as their budgets increased substantially with a secondary income.

Child Labor

Poor and working-class children had performed household chores and assisted in family enterprises long before industrialization. As early as the Middle Ages, children spun thread for their parents to weave on looms (Tuttle, 2001). Children performed a variety of tasks that were critical to the family economy. Thus, the interdependence of work and family relationships, coupled with a household's labor needs and subsidence requirements, constituted the family economy.

With the dawn of the industrial society, many children were forced to work in factories to contribute to family support. These children often worked in deplorable conditions for long hours and meager wages. The practice was permitted because powerful industries profited from the cheap but efficient labor that these children provided. Although children had previously worked in family homes and businesses, they had also been fed and cared for by their parents and often attended school and enjoyed leisure time as well. However, with industrialization children began to be hired as primary workers, especially in textile mills, and they began working longer, more demanding hours in structured and dangerous environments that were vastly different from those of the home and farm (Tuttle, 2001).

These factories subjected their child employees to "strict discipline, harsh punishment, unhealthy working conditions, low wages, and inflexible work hours" (Tuttle, 2001, ¶5). In addition, some children were taken from orphanages and workhouses to work in factories, and while they were housed, clothed, and fed by their employers, they were not paid for their work. By 1784, approximately a third of rural mill workers were child apprentices, and in some mills they made up as much as 80% to 90% of the workforce (Tuttle, 2001).

The working conditions that many of these children endured were deplorable. However, because child labor was not regulated, factory owners and managers routinely hired children as cheap labor that allowed them to manufacture goods at maximum profits. Children were also hired as factory workers because they were easy to coerce and unlikely to form unions. And because the manufacturing process had simplified many otherwise complex tasks, unskilled child workers could be used to replace skilled adult workers (Tuttle, 2001).

Over time, many child labor laws were enacted to curb the excessive use of child labor. While these laws were often ignored initially, increasing penalties for violations of child labor laws led to the dramatic decrease in the employment of children throughout much of Europe and the United States. Today, child labor is illegal in most industrialized societies, although it still is practiced in some regions of the world.

Economy

Integral to the industrialization of a society is a reshaping of its economy. The introduction of manufacturing and technology leads to increased efficiency and productivity, which in turn prompt greater levels of wealth and consumption. In addition, the work performed shifts from an agricultural mode of production to manufacturing and service jobs. Finally, the locus of work moves from the home to factories and manufacturing facilities. These changes require that workers reorganize their living patterns, and they move into cities to be near their work sites. In addition, the various levels of skilled workers translate into wealth patterns that begin to take shape in distinct class systems. These class levels generally cast workers in the lowest classes, managers and supervisors in the middle class, and administrators and owners in the highest social classes.

Capitalism

Capitalism as an economic system existed prior to industrialization. However, industrialization insured the spread of capitalism. Capitalism is a system of economic production in which the goals of commodity production are the growth of market share and the maximization of profit.

Capitalism, in its earliest form, existed in agrarian societies in the form of capitalist farmers, who produced agriculture products for sale in markets rather than for mere subsistence or personal use. However, as industry began to flourish and factories were built in cities and towns, many laborers who once worked in agricultural settings moved to industrial towns looking for work.

As factories and manufacturing sites expanded and industry became the dominant economic force, those with wealth and the means to invest poured money into emerging industries. Even individuals from modest backgrounds made fortunes by trading in raw materials or supplying parts and resources to factories and industries. Fed by a steady stream of cheap labor and developing technologies, factories reached ever greater levels of productivity and efficiency. Hence, although capitalism was not dependent upon industrialization for its existence, industrialization enabled the expansion of capitalism.

Economic Transformation

The Industrial Revolution, which began in eighteenth century Europe and spread throughout the world, was one of the most far-reaching, influential transformations of human society since the advent of plant cultivation and agrarian societies. The Industrial Revolution profoundly changed human labor, consumer consumption, family and social structures, and even the psyche of individuals and communities. It was much more than a change in modes of production. What made the Industrial Revolution unique were the profound economic and social transformations that came with this change and sparked a shift from agricultural and rural economies to capitalistic, urban economies, and from a household, family-based communities to individualistic, profit-driven and industry-based societies. The changes brought on by the Industrial Revolution, which began as labor and economic advancements, soon grew into forces that shaped the social structures of families, neighbors, communities, and workplaces.

The economic transformation that occurred as societies began to industrialize developed in stages. In pre-modern economies, people buy only a few things: food, housing, and clothes. But when the improved steam engine was used to power machines, it enabled the rapid development of efficient, semi-automated factories where cheap child labor and mass production led to exponential rises in output of finished, affordable consumer goods. Further, the rise in the use of iron led to better, stronger machines, buildings, and raw materials that continued to fuel the rise in industries and technology. And as demand for cheap goods and building materials grew, there was a corollary increase in the demand for fuel, transportation, raw materials, human labor, and investment capital. To satisfy these demands, more people went to work and more factories were built to supply products, goods, and raw materials. With incomes and profits rising, then, the economies of industrial societies continued to grow and become more diversified. Many investors funneled these profits back into invention, technology, and machinery, which continued to fuel the growth in industry and capitalism and cemented the shift toward industrialization throughout much of the world (Reissman, 1964).

Emergence of Social Class Systems

Industrialization also led to the emergence of distinct socioeconomic classes. The entrepreneurs who built empires supplying the raw materials that were fueling the rise in industrialization became extraordinarily wealthy. A new middle class also emerged, consisting of upper middle class professionals such as managers, accountants, doctors, lawyers, engineers, and other professionals with knowledge-based skills, as did a lower middle class of workers consisting of shopkeepers, teachers, nurses, secretaries, and other white collar workers who were less educated and less wealthy than the upper middle class, but nevertheless identified with them. Over time, the middle class became able to afford a comfortable lifestyle, and its members spent money on food, servants, a few luxury items, and handsome homes and apartments. While they generally shared core values that revolved around hard work, education, religion and family, they often harbored deep anxieties about their social and economic positions.

Beneath the middle class, a large working class developed that was made up of unskilled, poorly paid, and vulnerable workers. Members of this class were often women, children, and immigrants who had minimal education, resources, or support. They were often exploited by profit-driven employers who required them to work long hours for little pay. This working class also included highly skilled craftsmen, such as printers, masons, bricklayers, and pipe-fitters, as well as unskilled factory workers and domestic servants.

Thus, the process of industrialization provided a means by which many people who did not own land or fields could earn a living by working in the emerging industries. However their work options, conditions, and financial remuneration depended largely on education and skill, leading to large disparities and the emergence of social classes.

Labor

The different types of societies are distinguished from one another by the dominant form of labor performed by their members. Hunting and gathering societies exert labor to obtain food sources and maintain shelter. Agrarian societies have permanent dwellings, but still work to cultivate food sources that must often be replanted year after year. Industrial societies have permanent dwellings and generally stable sources of food and their members work to obtain a more comfortable lifestyle or wealth and leisure. Labor in industrial societies is greatly enhanced through technology, education, and skilled workers.

Technology

Industrialization exponentially increases the productivity and efficiency of a society's workforce. In agrarian societies, cities held little appeal to those living in rural communities, as many of the commodities made and traded in the cities were too expensive for rural populations or were simply unnecessary. However, as new factories, technologies, and transportation networks developed the infrastructure and manufacturing capabilities of emerging cities, rural populations began migrating into towns and cities to seek new opportunities.

With the rise in technology and the mechanization of many work processes came a sharp increase in worker productivity. The average modern industrial worker was soon able to produce as much in one hour as a worker creating or assembling items by hand could produce in a day. The rise in technological efficiency even reached farms and rural workers as new machines and improved farming techniques greatly increased the output of farming efforts. When machines and other technological advancements displaced rural laborers, these workers sought new opportunities in cities, which continued the movement of significant portions of the workforce from rural areas to urban centers where they could find work factories or mills.

Education

Education was developed around an agrarian society, where children often rose early, went to school, and then returned home in time to complete chores before sunset. Schools generally closed during the busy harvesting seasons of summer and early fall. However, as societies become industrialized, schools often struggle to adapt to the needs of workers, businesses, and family life. Because many poor workers had to leave school at a young age to obtain employment, they often lagged behind their better educated counterparts for the rest of their work lives. Workers with at least a moderate education were generally able to gain sufficient skills to find jobs in the manufacturing sector, especially work in the many assembly lines that drove the growth in industry and production.

However, the ability to obtain an education — or lack thereof — often reinforced certain class structures, with middle class and upper class families having the means to send children to school, thereby enabling the children to obtain the better paying jobs as adults. Poor families that were unable to provide their children with an education, or that were forced to send children to work in factories at an early age, often remained in poverty as the children settled into the lowest paying jobs doing some of the most difficult work. Poor families that were able to send their children to school, though, were at times rewarded with seeing their children enter occupations that would otherwise have been closed to them.

Formation of Organized Labor

The Industrial Revolution concentrated labor into mills, factories, and other manufacturing facilities. This concentration of labor enabled workers to organize into combinations of trade and labor unions to advance the reformation of the rights and labor conditions of working people. By organizing, workers were able to collectively demand better employment terms and, if their demands were ignored, then leverage them by slowing or withdrawing all labor, causing a diminishment or cessation of production. Facing the costs of lost production, employers and factory owners were then forced to either negotiate with or yield to organized labor leaders (Kuczynksi, 1946).

Because skilled workers were difficult to train and replace within a short amount of time, they were the first organized workers to successfully advance their demands through this kind of organized bargaining. Although many labor strikes were harmful to both unions and management, they were successful in effecting significant changes in the working conditions and compensations of millions of workers who had been exploited amidst the swift rise of industry.

Working people also formed cooperative organizations that offered support during times of economic hardship. Labor unions slowly won legal battles that supported their right to strike and enabled them to break down the disparate power structure dividing workers from management. Over time, labor unions became associated with politicians and political parties that supported labor reform, and the workplace became one of the most heavily regulated aspects of society.

Further Insights

The process of industrialization affects every sphere of a society, though some of the initial changes it brings are dismal. For instance, as factories and assembly lines flourished, workers streamed into cities to seek work. Without any organization or representation, they labored in dingy, sometimes filthy worksites for long hours and minimal wages with no ability to challenge corrupt managers or owners. Further, as people flocked into cities, they often found themselves in deplorable housing conditions because the cities lacked the infrastructure to accommodate so many people living in close proximity. Over time, however, voices of dissent clamored loud enough that social reforms began to occur. Working and housing conditions improved, pollution emissions were regulated, and workers were able to organize into labor unions to collectively fight for fair work conditions.

Industrialization & Social Reform

Because the entrepreneurs who own the factories enjoy a steady supply of cheap labor, they have little incentive to improve working conditions or pay laborers a higher wage. As a result, the living conditions of the poor in industrializing societies are often worse than the condition of peasants in the countryside. However, when laborers work together to lobby for social reforms, they are often able to initiate improvements in both living and working conditions. Many of the social reforms that stemmed from the industrialization of societies revolved around working conditions. For example, laws were passed in Europe and in the United States that prohibit child labor. In addition, today the work day is shorter and divided into shifts that generally include a mandatory break and meal times. In addition, discrimination against women, minority, or disabled workers has largely been prohibited by law, and workplaces are now required to maintain certain safety and health standards to protect the health and well-being of their employees.

Industrialization & Family Life

Industrialization profoundly affects social relationships. The bonds of affection and loyalty, deference, respect, power, and authority that bind people together in traditional or agrarian social systems weaken or dissolve with industrialization. The obligations of reciprocal rights, family life, and interpersonal relationships are all transformed. Long-held ideas and values get pushed aside in favor of new concepts and ideologies influenced by industry and technology. Thus, industrialization has earned a reputation as a revolutionary social force (Rosen, 1982).

Industrialization both democratizes and debunks the traditional social system of close-knit, rural communities in which like-minded individuals interact frequently as they work, live, and conduct their business in close proximity and in many ways depend on one another for survival. Industrialization, instead, allows for the individualization of communities and the influence of diversity to challenge the status quo. Families become less dependent upon relatives and neighbors, and even individuals within families can earn the means to become self-sufficient. Over time, people and relationships become less defined by an ascribed status that stems from blood lines or family ties and more defined as the product of individual character and effort.

Once in cities, people in industrialized societies form new alliances that continue to affect industry and society. Over time, workers form new relationships that are based on common interests or experiences rather than familial ties, such as labor unions or political parties. While this process may be gradual, given enough time these changes can have a profound impact on personal, familial, and occupational relationships.

Industrialization & Pollution

The Industrial Revolution was largely driven by a variety of mechanical innovations that paved the way for machines to be used in manufacturing and production. With industrialization, mechanized labor replaced the human and animal labor that characterized agrarian societies. The replacement of human and animal labor with coal and steam power deeply altered human and environmental history. While these inventions enabled to production of a large number of goods, they also emitted more pollution and consumed more natural resources.

Industrialization has resulted in the pollution of water, air, and soil. Harmful waste emitted from factories and manufacturing processes is also disposed of in waste sites, where toxic chemicals leak into drinking reservoirs and the food supply. In addition, as populations in industrialized countries have moved from rural areas to urban areas, the density of urban communities has further exacerbated the effects pollution.

Agriculture is also affected by industrialization. Industrialized farming has caused the soil to degenerate, thus requiring farmers to use ever larger amounts of fertilizers and pesticides. In addition, forests and other animal habitats have been destroyed as land is developed to accommodate growing urban populations. Today, as societies observe the effects of the harmful levels of pollution emitted during industrial processes, new and greater efforts are being made to stem the levels of pollutants in the environment and to seek cleaner manufacturing methods that will still allow for high levels of productivity and efficiency without emitting by-products that are toxic to humans and the environment.

Conclusion

Industrial societies are characterized by the spread of mechanization and technology, an increase in manufacturing processes, and a shift from rural communities to bustling urban cities. Industrial societies experience profound changes in social and family patterns as workers trade agrarian responsibilities for employment in factories and mills. In addition, women and children may also seek work opportunities outside the home in order to add to their families' income. While industrial societies are generally characterized by rising economic affluence, the disparity between socioeconomic classes is often significant. The wealthiest families generally retain power over significant resources, such as highly productive factories, channels of distribution, or pools of raw materials and other natural resources. Middle class families generally consist of skilled and educated workers. The lowest classes are composed of the working poor — those laborers who lack a formal education, highly marketable skills, or sufficient organization to mobilize into a union. When economic inequities become too disproportionate, however, industrial societies can be transformed by sweeping social or labor reforms. In addition, the rise in industrialization production can have a significant impact on the environment.

Terms & Concepts

Achieved Status: The status or position in society that one achieves through one's own efforts.

Ascribed Status: The status that is given to one through birth or through a condition over which one has no control.

Bureaucracy: A type of organization characterized by a formal hierarchy, a clear division of labor, and established rules of conduct.

Capitalism: An economic system characterized by private property, free competition, and motivation by profit.

Class: A system of stratification in which members of a society are hierarchically ranked according to factors such as money, education, or family lineage.

Collective Conscience: The values, outlooks, and languages shared by a society or social group.

Economy: The system of production, exchange, and consumption of goods and services within a society.

Industrial Revolution: The social and economic changes attending the development of industrial machinery.

Industrial Societies: Societies in which the majority of production is industrial production.

Industrialization: The development and spread of the means for the large-scale production of goods.

Information Society: A society whose chief product is knowledge. The evolution of the information society is paralleled and spurred on by the development of information technology.

Means of Production: The technological and social means through which material goods are produced within a society.

Bibliography

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Suggested Reading

Adamopoulos, T. (2008). Land inequality and the transition to modern growth. Review of Economic Dynamics, 11, 257–282.

Iriarte-Goñi, I. & Ayuda, M. (2008, Mar). Wood and industrialization: Evidence and hypotheses from the case of Spain, 1860-1935. Ecological Economics, 65, 177–186.

Kristovi?, J. (2012). Theories on capitalist urbanization and the postsocialist city. Facta Universitatis: Series Philosophy, Sociology & Psychology, 11, 191–200. Retrieved October 29, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=90508806

Robinson, W. I. (2012). Global capitalism theory and the emergence of transnational elites. Critical Sociology, 38, 349–363. Retrieved October 29, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=76180744

Saha, L.J. (2008, Sept). Private schooling in less economically developed countries: Asian and African perspectives. Comparative Education Review, 52, 281–283.