Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan

• Official name: Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan
• Location: Mexico City, Mexico
• Type: Cultural
• Year of inscription: 1987

Located about thirty miles northeast of Mexico City, the Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan was designated as a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site in 1987. The city was settled as early as 400 BCE, but its origins remain a mystery. At its peak around 400 CE, it is believed the city was home to as many as two hundred thousand people. It was not only one of the largest cities of the world at the time but also the region’s major economic and religious center. The city had been abandoned for centuries when the Aztec people discovered it in the fifteenth century and named it Teotihuacan, which translates to “the place where the gods were created” in the Aztec language, Nahuatl.

The city is arranged in a grid layout that spans about 8 square miles (21 square kilometers) and contains around two thousand single-story compounds, plazas, temples, and palaces. Its most notable features are its pyramids, the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon. The Pyramid of the Sun is the largest structure within the site at 216 feet (66 meters) tall. The Pyramid of the Moon is the second largest at 140 feet (43 meters) tall. The main plaza of the city is connected by a 130-foot (40-meter) wide road called Calle de los Muertos, or “Avenue of the Dead.” The Pyramid of the Moon sits at the north end of the avenue and is flanked by smaller pyramids and platforms. Along the southern end of the avenue is a 38-acre courtyard called the Ciudadela (Citadel) that includes the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent who is one of the major deities of the Aztec people. The latter is decorated with sculptures of feathered serpents and Tlaloc-like heads, which were once brightly painted in blue, red, yellow, and white. Also of note is the Quetzalpapalotl Palace, which is decorated with images of owls and quetzals, representative of warfare.

Over the years, scholars have proposed several possibilities as to the original inhabitants of the city. Some believed the ancient Toltec may have built the city, but the Toltec culture flourished between 900-1150 CE, hundreds of years after Teotihuacan was built. Another theory is that immigrants fleeing a volcanic eruption built the city.

History

Although it is unknown who originally built Teotihuacan, the city appears to contain features of various cultures, including the Maya, Mixtec, and Zapotec. The city was founded as early as 400 BCE, with the largest structures entering completion in about 300 CE.

Similarly, little is known about the language, politics, culture, and religion of the people who originally settled Teotihuacan, but the art and architecture of the city show evidence of a polytheistic society that featured many gods and goddesses. The primary deity was the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan, depicted as a spider. Others include Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent god; Tlaloc, the rain god; and Xipe Totec, the god of spring. Priests practiced ritual animal and human sacrifices to appease these gods.

Over the years, researchers have discovered several sites at Teotihuacan that point to a history of human sacrifice. In 1989, researchers discovered eighteen bodies believed to be sacrificial victims outside the Temple of Quetzalcoatl. They later discovered an additional two hundred bodies. Many were male warriors in military attire, but researchers also found young women and males likely of high social status. Evidence of animal sacrifice includes canines (either wolves or coyotes), felines (pumas or jaguars), and birds.

About the year 600, the city’s major buildings were deliberately burned, and artwork, as well as religious sculptures, were destroyed. Some scholars believe this is evidence of a possible uprising by the poor against the ruling elite. Others theorize that invaders did the damage. Although a military powerhouse in the region, Teotihuacan itself lacked military structures and fortifications to protect itself from outsiders. By 750, the city was all but abandoned.

Aztec Culture and Resettlement of Teotihuacan

The Aztec arrived in Mesoamerica near the beginning of the thirteenth century. They reigned as the dominant social, political, religious, and commercial force until being overthrown by Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés in 1521. The origin of the Aztec is unknown, but it is believed that they began as a tribe of hunter-gatherers who were also known as the Tenochca or the Mexica.

Aztec culture was renowned for its sophisticated agricultural system. The civilization cultivated crops like maize, beans, squash, potatoes, tomatoes, and avocados. Intensive land cultivation and irrigation were staples of Aztec agriculture. In addition to agriculture, the Aztec subsisted on fishing and hunting local animals like rabbits, armadillos, snakes, coyotes, and wild turkeys.

Led by ruler Itzcoatl, the Aztec formed a three-way alliance in 1428 with the Texcoco and Tacuba to defeat the Tepanec, their most powerful rivals in the region. Montezuma I took power in 1440 and was known as the father of the Aztec Empire.

The Aztec people discovered and re-settled Teotihuacan in the fifteenth century. They believed the Toltec built the city and that it was the origin of civilization, hence the name Teotihuacan, which translates to “the place where the gods were created.” Montezuma made several pilgrimages to the site to pay homage to the gods and the early rulers of the city.

Integrity and Authenticity of Teotihuacan

This site has benefitted from ongoing maintenance, conservation, and permanent protection, which has preserved its monuments, design, and artistic wealth. However, weathering as a result of rain, wind, and solar radiation is a constant threat to the site’s preservation. Furthermore, some conservation attempts have been unsuccessful and even damaging due to the use of inadequate materials like concrete and polymers. Development in the surrounding area has also further threatened the site.

Teotihuacan is one of the archaeological sites in Mexico with the longest history of exploration. The first surveys of the site were taken in 1864, with the first explorations twenty years later. Certain monuments were restored from 1905-1910, including the Pyramid of the Sun, which received a fifth tier.

Significance

Occupied from about 400 BCE until the fifteenth century, Teotihuacan was one of the most powerful cultural centers in Mesoamerica. Its cultural and artistic influences spread throughout the region to places like the Yucatán region of Mexico and as far away as Guatemala.

The city’s construction makes Teotihuacan particularly significant. The original inhabitants built enormous monuments such as the Pyramid of the Sun, which measures 720-by-760 feet (220-by-230 meters) at the base and towers 216 feet (66 meters) in height. In addition to the sheer size of some structures, the city was designed on a strict layout of cosmic harmony.

Teotihuacan’s art is considered the most developed of all of Mexico’s classic civilizations. The artistic expression featured at Teotihuacan through the sculpted and painted decor of the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl, in contrast with the strict geometry of the pyramids of the Sun and Moon, is also notable. The art and architecture styles of Teotihuacan are found throughout Mesoamerica, suggesting the city had far-reaching influence. Other examples of the city’s art are evidenced in sculpture, pottery, and murals, which are highly stylized and minimalist.

The sacred monuments and places of worship, such as the Pyramid of the Sun, Pyramid of the Moon, Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl, and the Palaces of Quetzalmariposa, the Jaguars, and Yayahuala, represent excellent examples of a pre-Columbian ceremonial center. However, the entire archaeological site of Teotihuacan, which extends beyond this ceremonial center, housed at least twenty-five thousand people.

Aspects of the city’s religion, architecture, planning, and art influenced both contemporary and subsequent civilizations in Mesoamerica, including the Zapotec, Maya, Toltec, and Aztec. Imagery of Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent god, spread across Mesoamerica. This is a testament to the influence of the city.

Teotihuacan was also an important trade center. The city exported fine obsidian tools, including spear and dart heads. Ceramics such as pottery and other luxury goods were also exported from Teotihuacan. Other imports and exports likely included cotton, cacao, and exotic feathers and shells.

Teotihuacan is also historically important as a result of the legend surrounding it. The Aztec believed this was “the place where the gods were created,” and Montezuma returned to the site every twenty days, according to sixteenth-century writings.

In addition, the site is rich in artifacts. In 2003, a rainstorm opened a large sinkhole at the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, and researchers began excavating the site. By late 2015, they had discovered seventy-five thousand artifacts, including seashells, pottery, animal bones, and human skin. They also found jewelry, amber jars, black stone statues, and ritual relics. In 2020, archeologists discovered bouquets of flowers thought to be 1,800 years old, which provided insight into the ritual and spiritual practices of the Teotihuacan population. In 2022, the 1,700-year-old remains of a spider money were unearthed. It is believed primates were used in diplomatic exchanges.

Bibliography

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Cartwright, Mark. “Teotihuacan.” World History Encyclopedia, 17 Feb. 2015, www.worldhistory.org/Teotihuacan. Accessed 20 Jan. 2025.

García-Des Lauriers, Claudia, and Tatsuya Murakami, editors. Teotihuacan and Early Classic Mesoamerica. University Press of Colorado, 2022.

Gershon, Livia. “1800-Year-Old Flower Bouquets Found in Tunnel Beneath Teotihuacán Pyramid.” Smithsonian Magazine, 25 Aug. 2021, www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/1800-year-old-flower-bouquets-found-below-temple-teotihuacan-180978518/. Accessed 20 Jan. 2025.

“Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre, whc.unesco.org/en/list/414. Accessed 20 Jan. 2025.

“Teotihuacan.” History, 23 June 2023, www.history.com/topics/ancient-americas/teotihuacan. Accessed 20 Jan. 2025.