Shanidar Cave

The Shanidar Cave is an archaeological site in Iraq where the remains of several Neanderthals were first discovered in 1957. Consisting of ten individuals—seven adults and three infants—these remains have helped to better shape scientists' understanding of Neanderthals' biology and social practices. While evidence of Neanderthals has been found in various locations around Eurasia, the Shanidar Cave remains are unique because of the evidence they offer about the possible burial practices of Neanderthals and other aspects of their social customs.

Background

Neanderthals, or Homo neanderthalensis, are the closest known relatives to humankind (Homo sapiens) on the phylogenetic tree. The reasons for their extinction are not clear. However, it has been speculated that they may have been displaced by early modern humans or disappeared because of climate change. The Neanderthals were ideally suited to cold weather and may have been unable to adapt to changing conditions. They were slightly smaller and stockier than humans are and were better able to tolerate cold weather. They had barrel-shaped chests, broad noses, and a distinctive bony projection at the back of the skull called an occipital bun.

The first Neanderthal remains were discovered in 1829 in Engis, Belgium. They were not identified as a distinct species until a skeleton found in 1856 in the Neander Valley in Germany was recognized as belonging to the same hominid family that includes modern humans and the great apes. While Neanderthals have often been stereotyped as unintelligent, brute-like "cavemen," scientists have found that they had brains roughly the same size as humans and had developed societies with distinct burial practices. Most aspects regarding the biology and social practices of Neanderthals remained a mystery throughout the first half of the twentieth century. Shanidar Cave provided invaluable data about Neanderthal biology and culture.

Beginning in 1951, anthropologist Ralph Solecki investigated a number of cave sites in northern Iraq for evidence of prehistoric man. He identified Shanidar Cave on Bradost Mountain in the Zagros Mountains as the most promising site for excavation. Located in the Kurdistan region of Iraq, it was subsequently identified in 1957 as a cemetery containing the remains of several Neanderthals. It was the first such site found east of the Mediterranean Sea, and this discovery extended the known range of Neanderthals several thousands of miles farther east than had been previously thought.

Neanderthal Remains

Solecki initially found the partial remains of nine Neanderthal skeletons; a tenth was identified in 2000. In addition, the cave contained thirty-five sets of remains in two later cemeteries from the Proto-Neolithic era of modern humanity (about 10,000 to 11,000 years ago). Each Neanderthal skeleton was assigned a number in accordance with the order in which they were found. Based upon the geologic layers from which they were excavated, three sets of remains (Shanidar 1, 3, and 5) are considered to be more recent (from 35,000 to 60,000 years ago), while the others are believed to have been in the cave for a longer period—possibly dating as far back as 70,000 to 80,000 years ago. Five sets belonged to adult males; Shanidar 1, 3, 4, and 5 were identified as older males—probably between the ages of forty and fifty—while Shanidar 2 was that of a younger male. Shanidar 6 and 8 were adult females, and the Shanidar 7, 9, and 10 were infant remains.

The site is often referred to as a cemetery; however, based upon contextual evidence, only some of the bodies were probably deliberately deposited in the cave. Shanidar 2, 3, and 5 are believed to have died in the cave in natural rock falls. Shanidar 4, 6, 7, and 8 showed evidence of intentional burial and may have been interred over a short period. These remains form a spatial cluster that seemed to indicate forethought, and at least one seemed to have been placed in a naturally formed hole with soil brought from elsewhere placed over the body. The skeletons also demonstrated for the first time that, in contrast to prevailing assumptions of the time, Neanderthals walked upright.

In what was initially thought to be one of the more sensational finds, pollen was discovered in the grave of Shanidar 4. Some scientists believed this was evidence of a flower burial—that is, that the body was covered in flowers at the time of burial in a sign of sentimentality. However, subsequent analysis showed that the grave was likely occupied later by a mouse-like animal called a jird, which could have introduced the pollen to the site.

Other signs of occupancy of the cave have been found, including ash from hearth fires and tool fragments. These signs have led anthropologists to believe that the cave was repeatedly occupied for short periods, possibly as a refuge from severe weather.

Several of the remains displayed evidence of wounds that had healed. Shanidar 1 in particular had old injuries to his left eye socket and various deformities to his right leg and arm. All of these wounds had healed somewhat, but they likely impaired his life significantly; he was almost certainly blind in one eye and had difficulty walking. However, analysis of the remains showed that these injuries had not likely played a role in his death. This led scientists to speculate that the other members of the community had cared for him, meaning that Neanderthals had a community structure and empathy for members with a limited ability to contribute to the group.

Renewed excavations at Shanidar Cave from 2015 to 2016 uncovered new Neanderthal remains in the same area where Shanidar 5 was discovered. The newly found bones, including vertebrae, leg, foot, and pelvis fragments, align morphologically and metrically with Shanidar 5's remains, filling in previously missing parts of his skeleton. Photographic comparisons and sediment analyses confirm that the old and new remains were directly adjacent and belong to the same individual. These findings offered a unique opportunity to reexamine Neanderthal morphology, health, and burial practices in greater detail. Ongoing analyses of sediment morphology, palynology, and dating are expected to provide further insights into how Shanidar 5 was deposited in the cave and the broader context of Neanderthal behavior and environmental interactions.

In 2018, a Neanderthal individual named Shanidar Z was discovered during renewed excavations at Shanidar Cave. This find, located near the remains of other Neanderthals like Shanidar 5, has provided valuable insights into Neanderthal morphology, burial practices, and social behavior. Shanidar Z consisted of an exceptionally well-preserved upper torso, including ribs, a vertebral column, and a partial skull with teeth, which were found in situ and remarkably intact. Because the skeleton was so well preserved, it allowed researchers to gain detailed anatomical and isotopic data, shedding light on diet, health, and environmental interactions.

One of the most interesting aspects of Shanidar Z was the surrounding evidence of intentional burial. The remains were found in a sediment layer that included pollen, sparking debates about whether Neanderthals deliberately interred their dead and possibly placed flowers or other items in graves as part of a ritual. The positioning of the skeleton and the surrounding sedimentary context supported the hypothesis of a deliberate and careful deposition. Shanidar Z was also believed to be female based on preliminary assessments of the skeletal remains. This identification was supported by the analysis of pelvic features and other morphological indicators, although further studies are ongoing to confirm this determination. The identification of Shanidar Z as female added valuable context to the study of Neanderthal social structure and burial practices. This discovery reinforced the view of Neanderthals as complex, intelligent beings capable of symbolic thought and social cohesion.

Topic Today

Excavations have continued at the cave since its original discovery. On several occasions, scientists have located further remains that likely belong to the ten known skeletons, but archaeologists believe there may be more individuals yet to be found. However, research efforts have been complicated by the instability of the region. In 2014, there were forty-five foreign missions from sixteen countries doing research at the site—a testament to its presumed importance. These research groups were forced to evacuate from the area during the summer of that year when soldiers from the militant group known as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) moved into the area.

ISIS has earned a reputation for trafficking in stolen archaeological goods and is known to have looted many historical sites throughout Iraq and Syria. While the Shanidar remains stored at the Iraq Museum survived a mass looting after the Iraq War, the long-term safety of materials in regional institutions and in Shanidar Cave itself remains a point of concern for scientists into the twenty-first century.

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