Skeletonization
Skeletonization is the final phase of decomposition, where all soft tissues of a dead organism have decomposed, leaving only the skeletal remains. This process occurs gradually, with the skeleton becoming visible as tissues break down, and it can take anywhere from two decades to centuries for a skeleton to fully decompose, influenced by environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, and insect activity. The skeletonization stage begins when at least half of the skeleton is exposed, and bones may initially be covered in bodily fluids or decomposed tissue, which eventually dry out and decay over time.
Both forensic anthropologists and archaeologists study skeletonized remains to gather valuable information about the individual's life, cause of death, and historical context. Forensic anthropologists play a critical role in crime scene investigations, determining biological profiles through skeletal analysis, which can include identifying sex, age, ancestry, and any previous injuries. Meanwhile, archaeologists examine skeletonized remains found at historical sites to gain insights into past health conditions, lifestyles, and the overall history of individuals or populations. Overall, skeletonization is a significant process that aids in understanding both forensic cases and anthropological studies.
On this Page
Subject Terms
Skeletonization
Skeletonization is the final phase of decomposition. It occurs when the soft tissues of a dead organism have completely decomposed, leaving only the skeletal remains. The rate of an organism’s decomposition varies depending on several factors. Therefore, there is no standard timeline on when skeletonization occurs after death. This process occurs gradually, with the skeleton becoming visible slowly as the organism’s soft tissues and organic matter decompose.
Skeletonization marks the end of an organism’s decomposition. An organism’s skeleton can take anywhere from twenty years to centuries to fully decompose, depending on its environment and what type of ground it is on or buried in. The skeletonization process is relevant to the overall understanding of a body’s decomposition and what occurs after death. However, the study of skeletonized remains is important for forensic anthropologists in crime scene investigations and archaeologists studying historical artifacts. Both forensic anthropologists and archaeologists study the process to identify skeletal remains, develop a biological profile of the individual, and help understand the cause and time of death.
Background
Decomposition occurs in five phases. During the first stage, known as fresh decay or autolysis, body temperature decreases, the body stiffens, also known as rigor mortis, and blood pools on the side of the body closest to the ground. Next, the early decomposition stage begins. It is during this stage that the body begins to change more rapidly. Changes include bloating, skin discoloration, and hair loss.
Active decay, the third stage of the process, involves additional changes to the organism. Skin will continue to change color, and tissues will begin to decompose. During the fourth stage, or advanced decay, remaining tissues continue to decompose, resulting in skin sagging. Some bone may begin to show, although the complete skeletonization process has not yet begun at this stage.
Skeletonization is the final stage of this process. The organism’s skeleton becomes exposed during this stage. This stage begins when at least one-half of the skeleton is visible. The remaining tissues will erode over time. Bones may initially be covered in bodily fluids or decomposed tissue. However, as the skeletonization process continues, those substances will fully decay, and the bones will become dry.
Environmental conditions impact how quickly an organism decays. Specifically, temperature, humidity, and insect activity can affect decomposition rates. Organisms found in warm, humid environments with high insect levels will decompose at faster rates than those found in cooler, less humid climates. In the case of human decomposition, the body’s clothing or how well it is protected from the elements can also impact how quickly it reaches the skeletonization phase.
However, once the organism reaches the skeletonized phase, it can remain in that state for years or even centuries. The rate of decay of the skeleton is much slower than the earlier stages of decomposition. Environmental factors also impact how long the organism remains in a skeletonized state. Skeletons in fertile soil may take twenty years to decompose. In neutral soil or sand, it can remain in a skeletonized state for much longer, even hundreds of years.
Impact
Skeletonization is an important topic for scientists, forensic anthropologists, crime scene investigators, and archaeologists. Skeletonized remains are often studied to learn more about the body and what happened to it, including how and when the individual or organism died.
Forensic anthropologists study skeletonized remains for several purposes. Studying these remains can provide insight into how the person lived, what treatments or medications they may have taken, and what factors played a role in their death. From a historical standpoint, studying unearthed skeletonized remains from an earlier era can help anthropologists learn about the individual’s ancestry or personal history.
Forensic anthropologists also play a key role in crime scene investigation. When human remains are found and a crime is a possibility, investigators will collect evidence, including hair, fibers, and blood spatter. Autopsies can determine the cause of death, and DNA can identify the individual. Then, forensic anthropologists step in to provide expert insight, which can help identify the cause of death, and more.
Skeletonized remains require the work of forensic anthropologists to determine the cause of death and identity of the victim. These scientists will procure and clean bones to ensure they are ready for analysis. Then, forensic anthropologists work to determine the biological profile of the individual, which can help develop a thorough life history that may assist investigators. The biological profile may include information on the individual’s sex, estimated age, ancestry, and stature.
Once forensic anthropologists determine the biological profile of the skeletonized body, the focus shifts to identify what factors played a role in the person’s death. These scientists may often spend months analyzing the skeletal remains of any case. They are trained to be able to distinguish previous injuries, such as a broken bone during childhood, from trauma that may have contributed to the death. Their findings can provide important insight that can help detectives solve a crime. They may take the stand in a trial to share their findings with a judge and jury.
Archaeologists study uncovered artifacts, including skeletonized remains that may be found at historic sites. Skeletonization, then, is also important in the study of archaeology and can enhance the understanding of history. An assessment of skeletonized remains can also reveal health conditions that the individual faced throughout their life. For example, archaeologists can examine a skeleton’s teeth to determine what, if any, dental diseases or problems they had. Bones may also show a history of arthritis, gout, or spine inflammation. Visible fractures, sharp force trauma, and blunt force trauma may provide clues on how the person died.
Skeletonization marks the final stage of an organism’s decomposition, but skeletonized remains can last for many years. As a result, these skeletonized remains can provide forensic anthropologists and archaeologists with important information about the body, which can help solve crimes or offer key historical insight.
Bibliography
Chopard, Adrien, et al. "Skeletonization and 3D Rendering with Real Time Terahertz Tomography. Optics Continuum, vol. 2, no. 3, 2023, doi.org/10.1364/OPTCON.486227. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
Dautartas, Angela Madeleine. “The Effect of Various Coverings on the Rate of Human Decomposition.” TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange,Aug. 2009, trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1098&context=utk‗gradthes. Accessed 30 Mar. 2023.
Dunning, Hayley. “Analysing the Bones: What Can a Skeleton Tell You?” Natural History Museum, www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/analysing-the-bones-what-can-a-skeleton-tell-you.html. Accessed 30 Mar. 2023.
Kuta, Sarah. “Archaeologists Uncover Rare Human Skeleton at Waterloo.” Smithsonian Magazine, 21 July 2022, www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/archaeologists-uncover-rare-human-skeleton-waterloo-battlefield-180980439/. Accessed 30 Mar. 2023.
“Meeting the Forensic Challenges of Subadult Skeletons.” National Institute of Justice, 23 June 2022, nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/meeting-forensic-challenges-subadult-skeletons. Accessed 30 Mar. 2023.
Pope, Melissa A. “Differential Decomposition Patterns of Human Remains in Variable Environments of the Midwest.” Digital Commons at University of South Florida, 12 Apr. 2010, digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2740&context=etd. Accessed 30 Mar. 2023.
Thomson, Jess. “This Is What Happens to Your Body When You Die.” Newsweek, 4 Dec. 2022, www.newsweek.com/your-body-each-step-death-1761458. Accessed 30 Mar. 2023.
Vass, Arpad A. “Dust to Dust: The Brief, Eventful Afterlife of a Human Corpse.” Scientific American, 1 Sept. 2010, www.scientificamerican.com/article/dust-to-dust/. Accessed 30 Mar. 2023.
Walsh-Haney, Heather. “Skeleton Keys: How Forensic Anthropologists Identify Victims and Solve Crimes.” Science, 7 June 2022, www.science.org/content/article/skeleton-keys-how-forensic-anthropologists-identify-victims-and-solve-crimes. Accessed 30 Mar. 2023.
“What Do Forensic Anthropology and Detectives Have in Common?” National Museum of Natural History, naturalhistory.si.edu/education/teaching-resources/social-studies/forensic-anthropology. Accessed 30 Mar. 2023.