Viking

The Vikings were a group of seafaring Scandinavian warriors who attacked and plundered the coasts of Europe from the eighth to the eleventh centuries C.E. While their ruthless tactics and willingness to target holy sites gave them a feared reputation across Europe, the Vikings were also accomplished explorers and traders who settled in many of the lands they raided. Over time, Viking culture became intertwined with the people they conquered, leaving a legacy reflected in modern literature, geography, and language.

Early History

Scandinavia is a region of northern Europe consisting of the modern nations Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Humans had been living in the area since about 9000 or 8000 B.C.E., and developed farming and livestock herding settlements sometime between 4000 and 1500 B.C.E. Weapons found in burial sites from the era displayed signs of heavy use, hinting that warfare was common in the region. Other archaeological evidence suggested the early Scandinavians launched seagoing raids against each other and built numerous forts for defense.

At the height of their empire, the Romans traded with the Scandinavians but never attempted to conquer them. After the fall of Rome in the fifth century C.E., much of Europe descended into chaos as barbarian invaders pushed westward. Isolated by the sea and harsh northern climate, Scandinavia escaped the brunt of these attacks, leading to a period of wealth and relative stability. As the eighth century dawned, Europe had recovered from the barbarian incursions of centuries past, establishing trading centers and growing more prosperous. Scandinavian traders were also venturing over the seas, settling on the islands north of Scotland and doing business with European merchants. It was not long before rumors of European wealth made their way north and the two worlds came into conflict.

In 793, an invading force from what was most likely Norway descended on the monastery at Lindisfarne, an island off the northeast coast of England. The monastery was an easy target for the marauders. Lindisfarne, like most monasteries of the era, was very wealthy and was undefended. The invaders ransacked the holy site, slaughtered the monks, and took their plunder of gold and religious relics back to their homeland. The unexpected hit-and-run attack shocked Europe with its speed and savagery. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a historical compilation of events from the era, described the invaders as "harrowing inroads of heathen men [who] made lamentable havoc in the church of God."

Overview

The raid on Lindisfarne ushered in what became known as the Viking Age. The origin of the word Viking is unknown. Some theories suggest it originated from the Old English term wicingas, meaning people who frequented a wic, or "port." Others believe it may have come from the Old Norse term vikingr, or "pirate," which itself was derived from the word vik, meaning "inlet" or "fjord." No matter what its origin, the term Viking was not widely used until the nineteenth century. The Europeans of the Middle Ages referred to the raiders by many names, the most common being the Danes, or Norsemen (Northmen).

After Lindisfarne, the Vikings continued their attacks on coastal monasteries, hitting targets on the Scottish island of Skye and Rathlin Island in Ireland. In 795, Viking raiders looted the Iona Abbey in Scotland, forcing the entire population of monks, nuns, and peasants down to the shore where they were systematically slaughtered. Stories of such carnage filtered across Europe and caused fear and panic among the population. These stories, however, masked the fact that not all Vikings came to pillage and kill. Some arrived as traders, but it was their brutal raids that dominated the consciousness of Europe.

At first, those Viking raids were lightning strikes along the coast with the invaders taking their plunder home to the north. By the mid-ninth century, however, the Vikings began to move inland, conquering regions in northern Scotland and Ireland and establishing settlements from which to launch raids upon England. The Vikings seemed unstoppable, capturing English territory almost at will. Only Alfred the Great, of the English kingdom of Wessex, was able to defeat the invaders in 871. Once in control of northern England, the Vikings established trading centers and cities, including the merchant city of York. In the early tenth century, the English turned the tide and began reclaiming territory from the Vikings. By 952, the last Viking ruler was killed and his forces driven from the island.

On the main continent of Europe, fear of Viking attack was so powerful that some rulers began paying ransom to the invaders to stop them from attacking. In 911, a Frankish king granted a Viking lord named Rollo a large section of land in what would become northern France. This region became known as Normandy, or "land of the Northmen." In the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Vikings extended their influence across the Atlantic, populating the island of Iceland and even sending explorers to North America. Some evidence suggests they traveled as far east as modern-day Iraq.

In the mid-tenth century, the Danish king Harald I, also known as Harald Bluetooth, had converted to Christianity and united the Scandinavian people. He began a second wave of Viking invasions upon Europe, and by 1013, forces led by Harald's son had conquered all of England. The successor to the exiled English king was able to reclaim the throne in 1042, but his reign was brief. In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy—a descendant of the Vikings who were awarded land in northern France—conquered England and claimed the crown for himself. The event is viewed by historians as the end of the Viking Age.

The Viking armies may have been driven from England, but the influence of their culture has lived on into the twenty-first century. English towns such as Grimsby, Thornby, and Derby have their origins in the Norse language of the people who settled there. The names of Norse gods are staples in literature and popular culture, and are even the origins of some of the days of the week. For example, Thursday comes from "Thor's Day," and Wednesday, from the Old English equivalent of Odin, or "Wodan's Day." The Vikings also had a profound impact on the English language itself. Many common words have their origins in Old Norse, such as bug (búkr), steak (steik), foot (fótr), and husband (hús bóndi). Not surprisingly, even English words used to describe the Vikings and their actions originated from their language. Ransack, for example, comes from the Norse word rannsaka, or "to search a house," and slaughter is derived from slatra, or "to butcher."

Bibliography

Attwood, Nick. "The Viking Raid on Lindisfarne." The Holy Island of Lindisfarne, www.lindisfarne.org.uk/793/. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.

Brownworth, Lars. The Sea Wolves: A History of the Vikings. Crux Publishing, 2014.

Dougherty, Martin J. Vikings: A History of the Norse People. Amber Books, 2014.

Holman, Katherine. The Northern Conquest: Vikings in Britain and Ireland. Signal Books, 2007.

Jarus, Owen. "Who Were the Vikings, the Warriors Who Raided Europe and Explored the New World?" Live Science, 6 Mar. 2023, www.livescience.com/viking-history-facts-myths.html. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.

Jordan, John-Erik. "139 Old Norse Words That Invaded the English Language." Babbel Magazine, 9 Oct. 2019, www.babbel.com/en/magazine/139-norse-words. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.

"Vikings." History, 18 May 2023, www.history.com/topics/exploration/vikings-history. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.

Winroth Anders. The Age of the Vikings. Princeton University Press, 2014.