Genetically Engineered Food Production

Summary

Genetically modified food production is a subset of biotechnology and genetic engineering. This developing field offers both hope and concern for global food production. Genetically modified food production is the direct result of the development of genetically modified organisms. Conventional plant breeding is a slow process, and it takes several years to develop plants with desirable traits. Advances in genetic engineering have allowed scientists to speed up the process of developing plants with the most desirable traits and with greater predictability. These plants help farmers increase production and obtain higher yields. However, the use of genetically modified organisms in food production is controversial in some countries because the effect of these organisms on humans has not been assessed.

Definition and Basic Principles

Genetically modified food production is the creation of food products using genetically modified organisms. Some of the food production problems that can be addressed using genetically modified organisms are limiting or eliminating the damage caused by pests, weeds, and diseases, and providing tolerance to specific herbicides, extreme temperatures, and drought, as well as other production-related issues.

One of the initial goals of developing genetically modified plants was to achieve higher crop yields by creating versions of plants such as corn and soybeans that offered greater resistance to diseases caused by pests and viruses. Genetically modified foods, also known as genetically engineered food, are developed, produced, and marketed mainly because they present an advantage over traditionally produced food to either the farmer/producer or the consumer. The benefit to the producers comes from increased productivity and the reduction of lost crops. The consumer benefits from genetically engineered food by having access to food with better nutritional value and, in some cases, lower prices.

Background and History

People began harvesting plants and domesticating animals around 10,000 BCE, and they soon were selecting the best seed and breeding the best animals through a process of trial and error. In the latter part of the nineteenth century, the monk Gregor Mendel used peas to demonstrate heredity in plants, thereby laying the foundation for modern plant breeding and genetics. The early work of Mendel and others led to the development of commercial crops by the 1930s. The field of molecular biology, which emerged in the twentieth century, has led to a better understanding of the cells and molecular processes of living organisms. This understanding has allowed researchers to develop genetically engineered plants and animals to address and solve many of the problems faced by farmers in crop and livestock production.

The first field trials of crops developed using genetically modified organisms took place in 1990, and by 1992, the first genetically modified corn was approved for use by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In the 1990s, additional advances led to genetically engineered vaccines and hormones as well as to the cloning of animals. Since their introduction in the United States, genetically modified crop plants have been widely used by American farmers, and the percentage of acreage planted with genetically modified crops has been steadily increasing, reaching more than 90 percent for some crops. Soybeans and cotton genetically modified to tolerate herbicides are the two most widely adopted genetically modified crops. Cotton and corn with insect resistance are the next most common crops grown by American farmers.

How It Works

Genetic engineering allows scientists to insert a gene from one organism into another, resulting in a genetically modified organism. Therefore, genetic engineering begins with the identification and isolation of a gene that expresses a desirable trait. This gene can be found in a relative of the target species or in a completely unrelated species. A recipient plant or animal is selected, and the gene is inserted and incorporated into the genome of the recipient. The desired gene is inserted by various techniques such as using Agrobacterium as a vector or using a gene gun. The newly inserted gene becomes part of the genome of the recipient and is regulated in the same way as its other genes. Genetic engineering confers a new ability on the organism that has received the new gene. One advantage of genetic engineering is that genes can be introduced in a plant even if they do not occur in the genome of the target plant.

The use of genetically modified food production, a new and valuable tool in agriculture, fisheries, and forestry production, has allowed significant improvements in food production to meet the needs of the ever-expanding world population. With conventional plant breeding techniques, researchers crossbred plants, taking five to seven years to generate a plant with the desired traits. In conventional breeding, half of an individual's genes come from each parent, but in genetically modified organisms, one or more genetically desirable traits has been added to the genetic material of the desired plant. One of the main differences between conventional breeding and genetic engineering is that in the conventional process, crosses are possible only between close relatives, whereas with genetic engineering, scientists can transfer genes between plants that are not related and might not be able to crossbreed in nature.

For example, in the case of Bt-corn, a gene from a naturally occurring soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis, was inserted into corn to provide resistance to the corn borer. The gene from the bacterium produces a protein, Bt delta endotoxin, which kills the European and southwestern corn borer larvae. Bt-corn eliminates the need to spray insecticides to control corn borers. Although planting these crops reduces the amount of pesticides released into the environment, the long-term effects of Bt-corn on human health and the environment are not known.

Companies involved in the research and development of plant and animals derived from genetic engineering patent these new products and processes. The patent allows them to protect their investment; however, it costs farmers who use the seed. A contract between the farmers and these companies prohibits the farmers from saving seed for use the following year, reselling seed to a third party, or exchanging seed with other farmers.

Scientists envisage numerous future applications of genetically modified food. For example, food could be used to produce drugs to address human health problems including infectious diseases. One of the crops that is being considered for such an application is bananas, which could be used to produce a human vaccine.

Applications and Products

Over the years, many biotechnology firms and well-established companies have become involved in research and development using genetically modified organisms. The genetic engineering technique and biotechnology are likely to have many potential commercial uses. Genetically modified organisms have many applications in food production and livestock. Many products, including plants and animals, have been developed using genetic engineering techniques.

Insect Resistance. The use of biotechnology to achieve insect resistance in food plants destined for human or animal consumption is accomplished by incorporating a gene into a particular food plant such as corn. In the case of Bt-corn, the gene for toxin production from the bacterium B. thuringiensis was incorporated into the corn plant. This toxin is an insecticide commonly used in agriculture and is safe for human consumption. Genetically modified plants that permanently produce this toxin have been shown to require lower quantities of insecticides in specific situations, for example, where pest pressure is high.

Virus Resistance. Virus resistance is achieved through the introduction of a gene from certain viruses that cause disease in plants. Virus resistance makes plants less susceptible to diseases caused by such viruses, resulting in higher crop yields.

Fungal Resistance. Fungal resistance can be achieved via the activation of specific self-defense mechanisms in the plant. One of the mechanisms is the so-called hypersensitive response (HR), in which necrotic lesion restricts the growth and spread of a pathogen.

Herbicide Tolerance. Herbicide tolerance is achieved through the introduction of a gene from a bacterium conveying resistance to some herbicides. In situations where weed pressure is high, the use of such crops has resulted in a reduction in the quantity of herbicides used. For example, corn resistant to the popular Monsanto weedkiller Roundup (glyphosate) has been developed so that farmers can treat their crops with Roundup without damaging their corn crop. This means that farmers can reduce the number and amount of herbicides used in any given year and situation.

Genetically Modified Animals. Genetic engineering of animals has taken place for different purposes and using a number of different species such as cattle, sheep, goats, rabbits, pigs, chickens, and fish. For example, well-performing bulls have been cloned to create better breeding stock, and animals have been used to produce useful human proteins. Research using genetic engineering in cattle production is trying to produce cows that are resistant to mad cow disease or that have the capacity to produce milk with higher levels of protein.

Scientists have been able to genetically engineer a variety of salmon that grows at twice the rate of Atlantic salmon. The fish is no bigger than the Atlantic salmon, but it reaches that size in half the time. Scientists inserted a Chinook salmon growth hormone gene into a fertilized egg of an Atlantic salmon. To ensure that the gene remains active all year round, scientists added a “switch” from the ocean pout to the Atlantic salmon. This genetically engineered fish reduces the production cost of salmon. AquaBounty Technologies, which developed the AquAdvantage salmon applied to the FDA for permission to market the fish. In September 2010, the FDA concluded that the fish was safe to eat but felt that more scientific research was needed, particularly on the possible environmental impact of the modified salmon. By late 2015, AquaBounty Technologies had received approval from the FDA to sell the genetically modified salmon in the United States.

Golden Rice. This rice variety was established to address the deficiency of vitamin A. This variety contains large amounts of beta-carotene, which gets converted into vitamin A after being consumed.

Possible Risks. Most scientists and regulators agree that the use of genetically modified organisms in food production may pose some risks. These potential risks usually fall into two basic categories: the effects on human and animal health and the impact on the environment where the genetically modified organisms are grown. Scientists and regulators advise that care must be exercised to reduce these risks, especially the possibility of transferring toxins or allergenic compounds used in genetically modified organisms to ordinary plants or animals. This cross-contamination could result in unexpected allergic reactions in humans and animals. One of the major risks to natural resources and the environment is the possibility of outcrossing, the transfer of genes from genetically modified organisms to regular crops or related wild species. For example, the use of herbicide-resistant corn and soybeans raises the possibility of outcrossing, which could lead to the development of more aggressive weeds or herbicide-resistant wild relatives of these cultivated plants. This outcrossing could upset the balance of the natural ecosystem. The introduction of genetically modified plants could also lead to a loss of biodiversity as traditional varieties of plants are displaced by a smaller number of genetically modified varieties.

Genetically modified organisms are not always advantageous: the cost of research and development can be prohibitively high, much cheaper ways to control the undesired pests or diseases may exist, and the still unknown effects on humans and the environment may potentially result in lawsuits against the developers of the plant or animal.

Careers and Course Work

Career pathways in agricultural production, biotechnology, food production, gene technology, genetic engineering, genetic manipulation, and recombinant DNA technology offer great opportunities for students interested in issues dealing with environmental challenges, human health, and reducing world hunger. These fields are all rapidly changing with new applications, techniques, and innovations being developed all the time. These fields of study can be loosely termed “biotechnology.” Students can prepare themselves for a career in biotechnology in many ways. The opportunities in the field include positions as government research scientists, corporate scientists, laboratory technicians, engineers, process technicians, and maintenance and instrumental technicians. Students can chose among a great many private and public sector employers and a wide range of work environments and types of jobs.

A biotechnology degree can lead to employment in the private sector, with drug and chemical companies, seed and agricultural companies, or environmental remediation companies; in government agencies such as the USDA's Agricultural Research Services or the Food and Drug Administration; or in educational institutions, teaching and doing research.

Social Context and Future Prospects

The social debate about the use of genetically modified food centers on the level of risk to health and the environment that they present and whether these types of food are necessary. The possible risks to human health presented by genetically modified food fall into two categories, direct and indirect. Direct effects include toxicity, an allergic reaction (also called allergenicity), and negative nutritional effects, and indirect effects include the stability of the inserted gene, outcrossing, and unintended effects as a result of the gene insertion. Therefore, genetically modified foods must be tested very carefully and thoroughly to ensure that the benefits of such plants outweigh their risks and the hidden costs of developing them.

The debate about whether genetically modified food needs to be created to deal with hunger among people in the developing world is taking place in many venues, both political and scientific. Some scientists opposed to genetically engineered food argue that there is more than enough food in the world and that the hunger crisis in some countries is the result of problems with food distribution and the politics in those countries rather than production levels and systems. They also argue that offering food with unknown levels of risk to those in need is unethical. This argument assumes that genetically modified foods have risks not present in traditional foods; however, the proponents of genetically modified food argue that traditional foods are not devoid of risk. However, as production of genetically modified foods has increased and no major adverse effects have emerged, some of the earlier criticism has disappeared. At the same time, a consensus does not exist among US scientists on the risks and the safety of genetically modified plants and animals.

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