Architecture and architectural engineering

Summary

Architecture and architectural engineering are fields involved in the design and construction of buildings. Working in close association with architects, architectural engineers translate people's needs and desires into physical space by applying a wide range of engineering and other technologies to provide building systems that are functional, safe, economical, environmentally healthy, and in harmony with the architect's aesthetic intent.

Definition and Basic Principles

Architecture and architectural engineering are complex and highly skilled fields. Architects develop the graphic design of buildings or dwellings and are often directly involved in their construction. Architectural engineers are certified professionals specializing in the application of engineering principles and systems technology to the design and function of a building. The term "architecture" sometimes includes the engineering technologies of building design. Architecture applies aesthetics, measurement, and design to the cooperative organization of human life. An essential dynamic of this process is the creation of technology. The engineering profession designs a magnitude of objects, structures, and environments to meet human needs and purposes. Building engineers specialize in the technologies that benefit human health and well-being within a built environment. These technologies are the direct result of exponential advances in the manipulation of chemical, hydraulic, thermal, electrical, acoustical, computational, and mechanical systems. Solar, wind, and nuclear power play an important role in the creation of sustainable buildings and environments, and the innovative use of new and recycled construction materials is an essential part of efficient planning and design.

Background and History

As early as about 10,000 BCE, small human settlements began to form along the fertile banks of the Nile River in Egypt, the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in the Middle East, the Indus River in India, and the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers in China. These settlements grew, becoming prosperous city-states that supported the erection of large buildings. Temples, pyramids, and public forums served as religious and political symbols of increasing private and public wealth and power. Elaborate structures of a grand scale required specialized instruments such as levers, rollers, inclined planes, saws, chisels, drills, cranes, and right-angle tools for surveying land surfaces and for masonry construction.

In ancient Egypt, individuals noted for their ability to provide shelter, public works, water supplies, and transportation infrastructure for their communities were known as “master builders.” The ancient Greeks called these individuals architektons. In Roman armies, military engineers termed “architects” designed siege engines and artillery and built roads, bridges, baths, aqueducts, and military fortifications.

Developing Technologies. During the Middle Ages, craftsmen and artisans contributed considerable expertise and know-how to building construction and helped refine the tools of the trade. With the advent of the printing press, classical Greek, Roman, and Arabic treatises covering topics in architecture, mathematics, and the sciences were disseminated, and their content found its way into practical uses. Advances in graphic representation (such as the use of perspective) and the geometric manipulation of the Cartesian coordinate system enhanced the conceptual art of two- and three-dimensional spatial translations. Technologies flourished, creating the impetus that came to a head during the Industrial Revolution.

The Modern Era. Population pressures on urban centers during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries accelerated the forward momentum of numerous technologies. The transition to fossil fuels, the development of steam power, and the distribution of electric power, as well as improvements in the production of iron and steel, transformed societies. These technologies had a profound impact on the principles of architectural design and building systems.

During the nineteenth century, the availability of energy and the technologies of mass production accelerated the standardization and distribution of construction materials worldwide. Heating flues, air ducts, elevator shafts, internal plumbing, and water and sewage conduits were developed in Great Britain and installed in hospitals, mills, factories, and public buildings. These innovative technologies were quickly adopted for private and commercial use in the United States, the British Commonwealth, and the continental nations.

New technologies for lighting, internal heating, and ventilation were first greeted with misgiving, but over time, building environments took on a life of their own in the minds of city health experts, architects, and engineers. A robust educational system developed to enable architects to master the increasing complexity and diversity of building design and construction technologies. Professional trade associations were formed to administer programs of certification and to determine public standards of health and safety that were codified and set within applicable statutory frameworks.

In the second half of the twentieth century, computers enabled architects and architectural engineers to function with a greater degree of precision. Computer-aided design (CAD) software is an essential tool for architects. Computers also can be used to create simulations and animations, as well as detailed presentation graphics, tables, charts, and models, in a relatively short period of time.

How It Works

Architects and architectural engineers play prominent roles in the planning, design, construction, maintenance, and renovation of buildings. All processes of a project are initiated and directed to reflect the needs and desires of the project owner. These directives are modified by detailed sets of construction documents and best practices. Building codes are enforced to safeguard the health and safety of the owner, users, and residents; environmental standards are followed to protect property and to ensure the efficient use of natural resources; and attractive design features are chosen to enhance the community. The choice of construction materials, the visual and spatial relationship of the building to the environment and community, traffic safety, fire prevention, landscaping, and mechanical, electrical, plumbing, ventilation, lighting, acoustical, communication, and security systems are all essential features that determine the quality, functionality, and character of a building.

Articulating the Owner's Intent. The contract process begins with the owner's interest in a residential, public, or commercial building. The selection of an architect for the project will be based on the type of construction (light or heavy) and the particular purpose the building is intended to serve. The plans for simple one- and two-family dwellings frequently follow well-established homebuilder association guidelines and designs that can be modified to meet the future owner's budget and lifestyle. Larger, more complex designs (such as a church or a school) will be managed by a team of architects and engineers carefully chosen for their expertise in key aspects of the project. The selections of the architectural engineering team and the project manager are considered the most important steps in the design process.

The careful and deliberate coordination of effort and timely verbal and written communication are essential at all stages of the project. At the outset, the owner and those directly involved in the corporate administration of the project must work closely together to establish the values and priorities that will guide the design. Detailed feedback loops of self-assessment are conducted throughout the different phases of the project to ensure multiple levels of engagement and evaluation. In the introductory phase, questions are raised to clarify the owner's intentions and to begin addressing key issues such as the scope of the project, the projected use and life cycle of the building, the level of commitment to environmental quality issues, and health and energy requirements. Once these issues have been formulated, a site evaluation is conducted. This process further refines the relationship of the project to the natural surroundings and includes a thorough review of the environmental integrity of the land; local codes governing transportation, water supply, sewage, and electrical infrastructure; health and safety issues; and the relationship of the surroundings to the projected indoor environment.

Project Design. The architect, working with other professionals, uses the information obtained in the introductory phase to create a design that fits the owner's needs and desires, complies with all building codes, and suits the site.

In situations where project turnaround is rapid, a design charrette may be scheduled. This is an intense, rapid-fire meeting of key professionals to quickly develop a schematic design that meets the primary objectives of the project. Participants include administrative representatives from all the internal offices involved in the project. In addition, utilities managers, key community and industrial partners, technology experts, financial institutions, and other stakeholders in the project are invited to set goals, to discuss problems, and to resolve differences. The process is a demanding one, challenging participants to think beyond the boundaries of their professional biases to understand and bring to focus a building design that reflects the highest standards of their respective trades.

Project Documentation. Project documentation is a highly technical orchestration of graphics, symbols, written correspondence, schematic sequencing and scheduling, and audiovisual representation. Construction drawings are a precise, nonverbal map that translates physical spatial relationships into intelligible two- and three-dimensional projections and drawings. The sequence of presentation and the lexicographical notations used to represent and to communicate the dimensions, systems, materials, and objects within a constructed space are highly refined, requiring years of careful study and practice. Project documentation also includes all the legal and civic certifications, permits, and reviews required before a certificate of occupancy is finally issued.

The documents of the project must be recorded in a narrative that can be understood by the owner and the different teams of workers involved. Documentation is particularly important for those project teams working toward LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certification. The LEED Green Building Rating System is an internationally recognized, voluntary certification program that assists commercial and private property owners to build and maintain buildings according to the best practices of green building design. It is administered by the US Green Building Council, a nonprofit organization whose members adhere to industry standards set to maximize cost savings, energy efficiencies, and the health of the indoor environment.

Systems Analyses and Energy Efficiencies. Whole-building performance is an essential concept for achieving energy efficiencies and sustainable engineering of mechanical systems. Critical decisions regarding the choice of materials, the orientation of the building and its effect on lighting, the dimensions of the space in question, and the requirements for heating, cooling, mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems demand a high level of technical analysis and integration among a number of building professionals to create a viable base design amenable for human use and habitation. Other factors incorporated into quality building designs include accessibility for the disabled, the mitigation of environmental impacts, and legal compliance with building codes and requirements.

As a result of the tremendous advantages of computational technologies, systems engineers have an expanding pool of resources available to assist in the optimization of energy efficiencies. Simulation software packages such as EnergyPlus, DOE-2, and ENERGY-10 make it possible to evaluate the potential for using renewable energy sources, the effects of daylight, thermal comfort, ventilation rates, water conservation, potential emissions and contaminant containment strategies, and scenarios for recycling building materials. Landscape factors that affect a building's energy use include irrigation systems, the use of chemical insecticides and fertilizers, erosion control factors, the conservation of native vegetation, and adequate shade and wind protection. Engineers use simulations to evaluate a series of alternatives to provide mechanical, solar, electrical, hydraulic, and heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems that optimize critical energy features of the design.

Statement of Work and Contract Bid. The final construction documents include all the drawings, specifications, bidding information, contract forms, and cost features of the project. Certifications of compliance with all regulatory standards and applicable codes are included in the documentation and are verified and signed by the project architects and engineers. Once a bid is secured and a final contract is signed, the design team maintains a close relationship with the contractors and subcontractors to monitor the details of construction and systems installation. The final commissioning process serves to verify the realization of the owner's intent and to thoroughly test the systems installed in the building. The integrity of the building envelope, the function of all mechanical systems, and the stability of energy efficiency targets are validated by a third party.

Applications and Products

The primary applications of architecture and architectural engineering are residential, commercial, and public structures. The Bauhaus school, founded in 1919 in Weimar, Germany, expanded the traditional view of architecture by envisioning the construction of a building as a synthesis of art, technology, and craft. Walter Gropius, the founder of the school, wanted to create a new architectural style that reflected the fast-paced, technologically advanced modern world and was more functional and less ornate. Another architect associated with the school, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe developed an architectural style that is noted for its clarity and simplicity. The S. R. Crown Hall, which houses the College of Architecture at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago, is considered to be among the finest examples of his work.

Modern architecture, characterized by simplicity of form and ornamentation that arises from the building's structure and theme, became the dominant style in the mid-1900s and has continued into the twenty-first century, despite the rise of postmodern architecture in the 1970s. Postmodernism incorporated elements such as columns strictly for aesthetic reasons. American architect Robert Venturi argued that ornamentation provided interest and variation. Venturi's architectural style is represented by the Guild House, housing for the elderly in Philadelphia, which originally featured a television antenna as a decorative element.

Architect Christopher Alexander has combined technology with architecture, incorporating inventions in concrete and shell design into aesthetically pleasing works, including the San Jose Shelter for the Homeless in California and the Athens Opera House in Greece. He argues for an organic approach to architecture, with people participating in the designs of the buildings that they will use and of the environments in which they will live.

New Paths. Alexander's work concerns itself with the environment in which buildings are constructed, which is a major part of architecture in the twenty-first century. Innovations in architecture and architectural engineering involve creating sustainable buildings or communities or creating buildings in unusual environments.

The Eden Project houses a series of eight large geodesic domes constructed in 2001 at St. Austell in Cornwall. These domes, or biomes, provide self-sustaining environments housing thousands of plants gathered from around the world. The tubular steel and thermoplastic structures use active and passive sources of heat, and innovative ventilation and water systems collect rainwater and groundwater for recirculation in the building envelope. The project's architects, Nicholas Grimshaw and Partners, have developed a system that helps other building professionals understand natural impacts on human environments.

Outside the city limits of Shanghai, Chinese architects, engineers, and planners worked with the London-based firm Arup to design and build the world's first eco-city on Chongming Island, the third largest island in China. The first phase of the project was to provide a living community for five thousand inhabitants on a plot that measures 1 square kilometer. By 2050, 500,000 people were to work and live in a city 30 square kilometers in size. However, in 2010 the project was put on hold and faced heavy criticism, providing an example of the many challenges for complex, large-scale development projects. Though the project was not completed, it did provide a blueprint for other similar eco-cities. By 2017, China had nearly three hundred eco-cities in development.

In the Netherlands, innovative designers are experimenting with amphibious housing, or homes that rise and fall with water levels. Along the banks of the Meuse River in Maasbommet, the internationally recognized construction company Dura Vermeer opened a small community of amphibious and floating homes in 2006. Designed by architect Ger Kengen, the amphibious models rest on a hollow foundation filled with foam and anchored on two mooring poles located at the front and back of the structure. The poles allow the house to float on rising water to a height of 18 feet. Floating houses remain on water year round.

Similar structures were designed in New Orleans, Louisiana, following Hurricane Katrina. In 2010, the Special No. 9 House, designed by John C. Williams Architects for the Brad Pitt Make It Right Foundation, won the American Institute of Architects Committee on the Environment (AIA/COTE) Top Ten Green Projects Award. The FLOAT house, also in New Orleans, is another Make It Right Foundation project developed by Morphosis Architects under the direction of Los Angeles-based architect and professor Thom Mayne.

Habitats in Space. Perhaps the most spectacular applications of the methods of architectural engineering involve the manned space flight program. Many of the mechanical systems that make homes and public places so livable are essential for creating similar environments in space. The International Space Station of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is a monumental project involving the efforts of fifteen nations to develop sustainable human habitats in space. Orbiting nearly 250 miles above the Earth at a speed of 22,000 miles per hour, the space station uses eight massive solar and radiator panels to control heat and provide energy for the ship's modular systems. Heating and cooling systems are essential for the maintenance of the ship, the internal environment, and the space suits worn during maneuvers outside the spaceship. Construction materials are in continuous development to find products that can withstand severe cold, radiation, and heat during reentry into Earth's atmosphere. NASA developed a lightweight ceramic ablater material able to withstand temperatures of 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit. Other insulation materials are used for electric wires, paints, and protective cladding for the ship. Many of the thermal fabrics designed for space have been adapted by athletes and health providers worldwide.

Inside the ship, mechanical systems generate heat and other emissions. Air quality is regularly monitored for carbon dioxide and oxygen levels. Waste materials are carefully recycled or packaged for shuttle return to Earth for disposal. Transportation routes, cycles of delivery, points of entry and egress, fire safety, lighting and electrical systems, oxygen generators, efficient waste disposal systems, water distiller and filtration systems for the storage, treatment, and recycling of water—all the technologies that add so much to the quality of human life—have been engineered to meet the needs of space travel. In turn, these novel space systems have enormous applicability in the design of products for use in homes and places of work on Earth. They also continue to be developed and refined as government space agencies and private companies explore the potential for further space or planetary colonization, such as a potential base on the planet Mars.

Careers and Course Work

Most careers in architecture require at minimum a five-year bachelor's degree in architecture or a four-year bachelor's degree plus a two-year master's degree in architecture. Those with undergraduate degrees in other areas may attend a three-year master's program in architecture. Usually students gain experience through an internship in an architectural firm. Architects with a degree from an accredited school and some practical experience must pass the Architect Registration Examination to obtain a license to practice.

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics' Occupational Outlook Handbook, the growth rate for architectural jobs was expected to increase by 3 percent from 2020 to 2030. In 2020, the median salary for an architect was $82,320.

The successful completion of a general program of study in architectural engineering requires demonstrated competencies in the mechanics of heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, plumbing, fire protection, electrical, lighting, transportation, and structural systems. Students may pursue a five-year program that terminates with a bachelor's degree in architectural engineering and generally leads to certification or a four-year program, followed by a master's degree. Students may also obtain a degree in architectural engineering technology, which specializes in the technology of building design.

Architectural engineering graduates must pass a series of exams administered by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying to obtain a license to practice.

Social Context and Future Prospects

From the earliest records of human history, architects and engineers have advanced human civilization. The practical and aesthetic dimensions of architecture and engineering technologies have had profound social, political, economic, and religious impacts. The practices of architecture and engineering are just as much a product of cooperative human evolution as they are catalysts of change. Indeed, no thorough study of these fields is complete without a thoughtful and rigorous understanding of the environmental and cultural forces that stimulated their advances. Topographies, geographies, climates, political economies, known technologies, the commodities of exchange, and the natural resources available for human use stimulated human imagination and invention in novel and diverse ways in particular times and places. These innovations are reflected in the range of human responses to the need for food, shelter, safety, hygiene, and social interaction.

In modern society, these needs are modified by larger global concerns including the efficient use of energy and natural resources, pollution containment, and the need for sustainable life systems. Green architecture will undoubtedly become an increasingly prominent part of the field. Architects will increasingly explore sustainable architecture that looks at not only the building but also the environment and community, and they will continue to pursue construction in unusual environments, such as housing on the water or in space. They will also look at ways to reuse existing buildings and structures, particularly those worthy of preservation. In choosing materials and systems, they will be investigating ways to recycle building materials and to incorporate systems that reduce pollution and minimize energy usage. The use of new and improved software such as building information modeling (BIM) software will greatly increase the productivity of architects, and this may result in lower job growth for the profession as fewer people will be needed to perform the same amount of work.

Modern architectural theory also considers the implications of architecture as a field that in many cases has divided into two camps: mass produced, functional structures and custom, aesthetically-minded works by individual architects or notable firms. This division may be seen as highlighting economic inequality, as the wealthy are able to commission construction that incorporates health-minded and sustainable design and is built on the most desirable sites, while buildings used by the poor may be neglected or shoddily constructed and pay little attention to factors such as ecology and health. Some architects and firms have taken a socially-conscious position to combat such inequality. Another development is the growth of open-source architecture, collaborative design, mass customization, and other architectural processes and techniques inspired by the open access movement. Resources such as the internet and 3D printing increasingly offer challenges to the traditional model of architecture.

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