Functionalism (architecture)

Functionalism is an architectural style of the early twentieth century that replaced historicism and art nouveau. The often-quoted phrase "form follows function" was coined in 1896 by one of the pioneers of modern architecture, Louis Henry Sullivan (1856–1924). His dictum gave the innovative trend of functionalism its name and became the mission statement for the architecture of the following decades. The key-principles for a functional design are based on logic and pure functionality of the buildings. Functionalism was a constructive and creative period of design that culminated in such architectural styles as modernism, the international style and constructivism, which flourished in the early 1920s and 1930s.

Brief History

The beginning of functionalism was influenced by the English arts and crafts movement and the Deutscher Werkbund in Germany. During the late nineteenth century, architecture and handicraft were affected by a progressive industrialization. Innovative and artistic ideas became decreasingly important, but at the same time the unimaginative repetition of historic styles increased. The Werkbund, founded in 1907 in Munich by Peter Behrens, Joseph Maria Olbrich, and others, followed the ideals of the English arts and crafts movement and started to create an innovative and high-quality design. Contrary to the English handicraft movement, however, more emphasis was placed on industrial mass production by integrating artists, craftsmen, and manufacturers.

The architects of the first Chicago school of architecture were major forces in the development of a new style. It is claimed that they created the first skyscrapers made of new construction technologies (metal-framed structures) between the early 1880s and 1890s. The important buildings of this period best represent the work of Henry Sullivan and are characterized by their monumental strength and their functionality, freed from any historical influences, a characteristic that runs through modern rationalism.

Twentieth century architects and designers experimented with ways of creating a new style of modern art and architecture that was specific to their era, rather than being based on a style from the past. Their aim was to invent original forms and details instead of imitating historic styles. Among the key-players in the emergence of functionalism and modernism are the architects Louis Henry Sullivan, who is regarded as the spiritual father of modern American architecture; the German born Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969), who is known as the leading figure of the international style; Walter Gropius (1883–1969), who founded the Bauhaus school in Germany; and the Swiss-born French architect Le Corbusier (1887–1965).

Initially the design concept of functionalism became rather extreme. The pure functional use of the building and the most economical application of technical solutions defined its shape. This implies that when all principles combine in an optimum way, the building should automatically become a beautiful piece of architecture. Sullivan did to some degree decorate his buildings with ornaments that did not serve any functional purpose. Architects following Bauhaus and the international styles realized the principles of functionalism more closely.

One of the outstanding representatives of functional architecture with emphasis on a cubic and strict geometric design was Walter Gropius. For him, the inner principles of the object to be designed, define its shape and details. The functionality became the aesthetic concept, but Gropius prevented the segregation of art and function, initially in the German Werkbund, and later in the Bauhaus. The Bauhaus (literally Building House) founded by Walter Gropius in 1919 is a German school of design that influenced or even dominated the twentieth century architecture after World War I. Critic Nikolaus Pevsner promoted the Bauhaus as an ideal interpreting it as the modernist educational academy par excellence. The fundamental characteristics of Gropius’s architecture are rational order and absolute geometrical simplicity including important technical solutions. Gropius created a modern and unique design style which later became known as the international style of modern architecture. The Bauhaus’s claim to be inspired by the notions of unifying art and technology was not left uncriticized. Nevertheless, it spread to the United States, where it was developed by Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969) and others.

Mies van der Rohe is said to have searched his entire life for the archetype of architecture, which should be reached by perfect construction. In 1938 he moved to Chicago and became Director of the Architecture Department of the Armour Institute. His triangular and twisted skyscrapers are made of reinforced steel and glass and aim to generate a new airiness and enhance the liveliness of the façade through light reflections.

Impact

The twentieth century was a vivid period, and architectural styles followed one after another or existed side by side. After 1930, as the functional and materialist theories overruled the artistic ones, Neue Sachlichkeit (new objectivity) became the predominant style of architecture especially in the Weimar Republic in Germany. Some architects expressed themselves in more than one style. The work of Le Corbusier is a good example to show a spectacular change in style. As a representative of the theories of functionalism, he emphasized theories about simple and functional space even though during his later creative period, he became the founder of the so-called plastic style. His Pilgrimage Chapel of Ronchamp, France (1950–1953) was the first building to be shaped more like a sculpture than a piece of architecture, and the principles of functionalism no longer were undisputed.

Since the 1960s, there has been particular criticism on the overemphasis on functionalism and its pure rational design. Diverse styles of architecture emerged that became summarized as postmodern. Toward the end of the twentieth century, the term "functionalism" itself began to be used to describe any structure that was quickly constructed for purely practical purposes without artistic considerations. The period of stylistic development that followed was characterized by claims for a deeper symbolic meaning, re-emphasizing references to historic examples and questioning of the rules of architectural tectonics. New technologies enable innovative form-finding processes. New theories and design concepts set new standards and express themselves in architectural styles such minimalism ("less is more"), deconstructivism ("disorder of thinking about the form"), but also in eco-friendly construction and sustainable building solutions.

Bibliography

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Sullivan, Louis H. "The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered." Lippincott's Magazine (March 1896). Print.