Japanese architecture

Japanese architecture (or Nihon kenchiku in Japanese), is a reflection of the culture and history of Japan itself. As an island nation, Japan has regularly alternated between periods of intense isolation and eras in which foreign influence had dramatic impacts upon Japanese culture. These shifts have enabled the Japanese to advance their architectural styles in seclusion and then, equally, embrace and absorb elements borrowed from foreign cultures. As a result, while the origins of Japanese architecture are strongly linked with Asian construction styles, in the modern era, it has been characterized by its willing absorption of elements reflecting Western aesthetics.

Japanese architecture, then, can be viewed in context of Japanese history. In the earliest incarnation of Japanese culture, Japan was primarily an undeveloped agricultural society whose residents constructed crude but habitable farm dwellings. As the nation became unified under the guidance of a centralized government, imperial palaces and other great works of architecture arose as the great legacies of this era. In the wake of World War II (1939–1945), Japan moved into the modern era, and its skylines mirrored Japan’s transformation into one of the most economically powerful nations on Earth.

Japanese architecture is notable for several distinct characteristics. First, the Japanese aesthetic is heavily influenced by Shinto and Buddhist religious beliefs that emphasize the need to find harmony with nature. This is particularly evident in the use of wood as a primary construction material and through design elements that allow natural light to shine into buildings. Second, Japan’s location on several earthquake fault lines has forced builders to take protections that promote the structural stability of buildings during natural disasters. Finally, the third key element of Japanese architecture can be seen in the evolution of Japanese culture that ultimately impacted the form and function of buildings. Structures such as religious shrines, tea houses, theaters, and palaces came to reflect the aesthetic tastes of the Japanese and their emphasis on simplicity and harmony.

Background

Early Japanese Architecture (Prehistory to 538 CE)

The earliest period in known Japanese history is described as the Jōmon period, which lasted from 13000 BCE to 300 BCE. During this period, the proto-Japanese culture was composed of hunter-gatherers who built simple homes similar to those found in many locations around the world. Jōmon-style homes had earthen floors, wood foundations, and thatched straw roofs. Reconstructed examples of this style of home may be found at the Sannai Maruyama Archaeological Site in Aomori. The earliest shrines dating from this era were simple and resembled storehouses.

During the Yayoi period (300 BCE–300 CE), Japan moved into the Iron Age. This era was marked by the expansion of agriculture, particularly the development of rice farming. Japanese settlements progressively became permanent, with population centers growing in size. In response to the heightened importance of the rice crop, Japanese homes from this era were built on stilts to prevent mice from eating grain supplies. The Yoshinogari Historical Park in Saga Prefecture has displays of typical Yayoi-style homes.

After the third century CE, Japan moved into the Kofun era (300 CE–538 CE). The word Kofun means “old tombs” in Japanese and is used to describe the most distinctive architecture from this period. Found in the Osaka and Nara regions, these sites were used in the burials of important figures such as rulers. These massive sites consist of large mounds in the shape of keyholes in which the tomb is located in the upper, round portion of the mound. However, as Japan increasingly adopted Buddhism as the state religion in the sixth century CE, traditional burials fell out of fashion as the Japanese followed the Buddhist custom of cremation.

Asuka and Nara Periods in Japanese Architecture (538–794)

During the Asuka (538–710) and Nara (710–794) Periods, Japan felt the growing influence of its Asian neighbors. In particular, Buddhism was adopted as an integral part of Japanese culture. From an architectural standpoint, the influence of Buddhism was most keenly felt in the construction of a series of religious shrines throughout the country. Beginning in 577, Korean temple builders from Paekche were invited to Japan to help construct shrines that ultimately demonstrated their foreign influence. In comparison to pre-Buddhist shrines which had used a more utilitarian shape that typically resembled residences and storehouse, the Buddhist-inspired shrines were more ornamental. The most impressive examples of these early Buddhist shrines may be found in the region of Nara, which served as the de facto capital of Japan in the sixth and seventh centuries. The Horyuji temple in Nara, which was constructed in 607, is the world’s oldest wooden structure, while the Todaiji shrine remains the largest wooden structure in the world.

Initially, Japanese Buddhist temples strongly resembled those in Korea and China. They had broad courtyards and symmetrical lines. Over time, these shrines were built to reflect Japanese tastes. During the Nara period, Japanese Buddhist shrines were often built with gardens within the building’s confines. They were also less symmetrical overall, with sloping roofs, a structural framework of brackets and rafters, and external support columns. These roofs were designed to allow rainwater to channel off the roof while blending into the natural environment.

Constructing buildings that so that were a reflection of the natural world around them became a key design element. By the eighth century, Japanese builders had shaken off the strict symmetry that characterized shrines on the Asian mainland and instead created buildings that were intended to incorporate the natural world into their design. As such, many temples from this era were built with layouts that reflected the topographical flow of the area.

Haien Period (794–1185)

As different forms of Buddhist philosophy were brought to Japan, the architectural styles associated with these forms arrived as well. Shingon, a branch of Vajrayana Buddhism, led to the incorporation of mandalas and Chinese pagodas into Japanese architecture. Between the seventh and ninth centuries, Japanese scholars made repeated trips to Tang China in order to solicit knowledge of Chinese culture, aspects of philosophy, art, and architecture that the Japanese adapted to their own tastes. However, a rebellion in ninth-century China led to the suspension of Chinese-Japanese relations, leading to a period of relative Japanese isolation.

The past cross-pollination of so many elements tempered with an extended period of cultural isolation allowed Japanese architecture to develop into a distinctly Japanese form during the late Haien period. In accordance with Buddhist philosophy and Japanese aesthetics, many temples from the Haien era combined the religious with the secular.

In Kyoto, which became the new Japanese capital in 794, the new magnificence of Japanese aesthetics led to the construction of the massive wooden Haien Palace. The royal family resided there until 1177 when they moved to the Kyoto Imperial Palace. Other palaces were less grand but more functional as they meant to serve as the headquarters for various regional lords as they waged war upon one another. Lords increased their fortifications and enlarged them to house their armies.

Kamakura and Muromachi Periods (1185–1573)

During the Kamakura (1185–1333) and Muromachi periods (1336–1573), Japan entered a period of increased militancy, and architectural styles were altered in accordance with this new state of near-constant war. Power shifted from the imperial family to a series of shogun lords who established a form of military dictatorship called a shogunate. Under this form of rule, the emperor largely served a figurehead and ceded much of his power to a ruling shogun. Initially the title of shogun was given to the commander of the emperor’s military forces, but over time, rival shoguns controlled individual territories. The samurai were the warriors who served the shoguns. Aside from the increased need for stronger fortifications, the Kamakura and Muromachi periods were characterized by the loss of many traditional structures dating back centuries as a consequence of battle.

As the strength of their defenses was the primary value of homes and buildings during the shogunate era, less emphasis was placed on the ornamentation of buildings. As Japan descended into civil war between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, Japanese lords began construction of a series of structures best described as castles. These structures were intended to be both fortification against rival lords as well as testaments to the power of their owners. Like earlier Japanese buildings, they were constructed mostly of wood, although some stone was used. While hundreds of castles were eventually built, the susceptibility of wood to fire and other forms of damage means that only twelve castles from Japan’s Middle Age period survive in their original form into the twenty-first century.

Edo Period (1603–1867)

After a brief period of transition called the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1573–1603), power remained in the hands of a ruling shogun, although Japan saw greater peace. Samurais built large residences in the shadows of their masters’ castles. The higher the samurai’s rank, the closer to the castle and the more impressive his home.

The Edo period saw the refinement of the tea ceremony in Japan. Like many other traditions, it was borrowed from the Chinese but adapted to Japanese tastes. The tea ceremony was intended to instill harmony and calm within a person. As the importance of this ritual spread throughout Japan, the landscape became dotted with tea houses, a structure dedicated to this rite.

The growth of the middle classes brought greater interest in art and a demand for theaters and brothels. People outside the ruling houses were also able to afford greater luxuries in the construction of homes, bringing new architecture that was more focused on a more secular form of design that provided comfort.

Modern Era (1867–present)

The modern era—which encompasses the Meiji (1868–1912), Taisho (1912–1926), Showa (1926–1989), Heisei (1989–2019), and Reiwa (2019–) eras of Japanese history—marked the introduction of major Western and modernist influences to Japanese architecture. Inspired by colonial residences built for European and North American merchants and diplomats, the Japanese modeled a new standard of architecture. They called this Western-style of construction Gi-yofu Kenchiku.

The Japanese government was an active participant in the modernization of its national architecture during the Meiji era. Leaders supported bringing in foreign architects and engineers and welcoming Western methods, while encouraging students to go abroad and take lessons. Japan was devastated by earthquakes in 1891 and 1923 that caused massive damage. In addition to the physical and emotional effects of these disasters, they had a major impact on the architectural philosophies of the Japanese. Intent on designing buildings that were more earthquake-resistant, perceptions of architecture began to tilt towards viewing the field as more reliant on engineering than artistic sensibilities.

Japan suffered massive damage during World War II. Beyond the destruction left by two nuclear bombs, air raids had ravaged the skylines of its cities. The Japanese government saw an opportunity in the wake of the tragedy and helped to promote an economic boom that altered Japanese construction. Height restrictions that had formerly limited most buildings to a height of one hundred feet (thirty-one meters) were lifted, leading to the construction of skyscrapers. Ideals about the fusion of natural aesthetics and construction were largely abandoned and Japan was transformed over the course of the twentieth century into a model of modern cities that bore little resemblance to the Japan of the past.

By the late twentieth century, sentiments about modern architecture began to shift again. Many modern Japanese architects have sought to fuse traditional Japanese aesthetics with modern architecture to restore urban landscapes to their former beauty. Architect Fumihiko Maki, for instance, has championed a form of East-West design that incorporates Western forms of construction with Japanese design ideas. He created buildings that centered around an inner space that recalled Buddhist spatial harmonies. At ground levels, he placed gardens at eye height that recalled Japanese perceptions of communion with nature even within the heart of a city.

Overview

Ultimately, Japanese architecture is meant to be a fusion of practicality of design combined with local perceptions that have been strongly influenced by Shinto and Buddhist ideas about the natural world. For instance, the use of wood that characterized Japanese design well into the twentieth century was a combination of practicality and principle. A lack of suitable stone materials combined with Japan’s rich forests made wood a comparatively easily harvested resource. In addition, its flexibility enabled it to respond well to the vibrations from earthquakes, while allowing for more flexible construction on the uneven surfaces of Japan’s hilly countryside. On a spiritual level, wood was seen as a material with greater links to the natural world.

Another outgrowth from the fusion of the natural with the artificial was the development of movable screen walls (shoji) and sliding doors (fusuma). While on a practical level they enabled homeowners to divide rooms as wanted, these lightweight constructs further allowed light to pass more easily into the home. They also served to replace glass windows, which were not used in traditional Japanese architecture.

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