Mastaba

A mastaba (pronounced mass-tah-bah) is a type of flat-topped, rectangular tomb from ancient Egypt that predates the pyramids. The word mastaba means "bench" in contemporary Arabic, a term that was coined by local workers because of the tombs' distinctive shapes. Typically, mastabas had inward-sloping walls and a level roof. Mastabas were used to bury the pharaohs of the Predynastic (before 3100 B.C.E.), Early Dynastic (c. 3100–c. 2686), and the Old Kingdom (c. 2650–c. 2181) periods of ancient Egypt. During the First Intermediate period (c. 2181–c. 2040), royal tombs were increasingly shaped as pyramids. However, mastabas continued to be built for royal retainers, civil servants, and other figures able to afford their construction.

Brief History

The earliest known forms of burial in prehistoric Egypt were pit graves that were dug into the desert soil. Due to the heat from the sands, the bodies would be naturally mummified. Typically, these early burial sites contained items called grave goods, which were materials that were provided either as a religious offering to the gods or as goods intended to be used by the deceased person in the afterlife. The presence of these goods is evidence that the early Egyptians believed in life after death—a belief that played a crucial role in the increasingly ornate burials used for pharaohs and other members of the Egyptian elite.

Eventually, the ancient Egyptians began to use wooden and clay coffins, and then to enclose these coffins in outer sarcophagi. In accordance with the increased importance of burial rites, the next stage of Egyptian prehistory saw the use of wooden roofs placed over graves as well as other heightened displays of respect for the deceased. These graves were traditionally covered with earth and stones to protect the bodies from scavengers and the elements.

In about 3100 B.C.E, the pharaoh Narmer unified the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt, marking the beginning of the dynastic era of Egypt. During this period, burial rites became increasingly complex. According to the ancient Egyptian belief system, the soul could not be at peace unless the body was purified and left free from earthly contamination. Only the souls (called ka) of the pharaohs went to live in the kingdom of the gods. For everyone else, their ka remained on Earth. To offer post-mortem safety, the Egyptians created the first mastabas. Mastabas offered greater protection from the real world for those seeking peace in the afterlife. The earliest of these mastabas are found at Giza, Saqqara, and Tarkhan.

The mastabas represented a more elaborate means of preservation that was accompanied by the development of mummification processes intended to immortalize the physical body and thus protect the spirit after death. In approximately 2630 B.C.E., the pharaoh Djoser from the third dynasty began construction of a traditional mastaba in the Saqqara complex. His architect was Imhotep, who is often credited with using stone construction as building materials for the first time. This massive structure, which eventually reached 204 feet in height, was the tallest structure in the world upon its completion. Called the Step Pyramid of Djoser by archaeologists, it is composed of six mastabas of decreasing size placed on top of one another. The entire complex—which filled an area 40 acres wide—consisted of chapels, temples, courtyards, storage areas for grave goods, and a large stone wall surrounding the building.

In 2600 B.C.E., Snefru, the first pharaoh of the fourth dynasty, sought to outdo his predecessor by building the first pyramids. Snefru's architects improved upon Imhotep's design by building structures with a step pyramid frame that had been encased with a limestone surface, thus creating the ascending smooth outer surface associated with the great pyramids of Egypt. Snefru had three such structures built, including the Meidum Pyramid, which measures 306 feet in height.

Overview

Mastabas underwent several changes from their origins during the first dynasty until the sixth dynasty when they began to fall out of favor—a period that stretches from about 3100 B.C.E. to 2181 B.C.E. The first mastabas were comparatively simple. They were initially composed almost exclusively of bricks made of mud from the Nile. Despite their relatively basic floorplans, they were nonetheless exclusively reserved for royalty and the noble class until the Old Kingdom period. These first mastabas lacked an entrance; instead, the builders would construct a false door, often carved with the image of the occupant. This was to encourage their ka to return to the body inside. The mastabas in this era usually had an outside facade designed to look like a palace.

During the second dynasty, mastabas were built with two false doors on the eastern side but without the intricate facades of the first dynasty. These false doors were sometimes carved with an image of the owner providing offerings to the gods. Increasingly, mastabas contained an underground level where the body was stored to protect it from looters.

By the beginning of the third dynasty—a period that archaeologists denote as the start of the Old Kingdom—the layout of mastabas was becoming more intricate. Instead of placing false doors on the exterior, they would include a small chapel with its own false door. The mastabas from this era, however, also had real entrances to allow relatives to gather and leave offerings for their deceased kin. Inside, they would have a long, deep chamber tunneled underground and lined with mud bricks and stone. Wood was used to reinforce the building to prevent collapse. Sometimes these corridors would be carved directly into bedrock. At the end of the passage was a vertical shaft leading to the chamber where the body was kept. After the body had been deposited in its chamber, workers would fill the shaft to prevent further access to the remains. The more intricate of these structures would also have several smaller chambers where grave goods and other funeral materials were left. Some would also have detailed scenes of daily life carved into the walls.

Mastabas were a far more common form of burial rite during the Old Kingdom. As pharaohs were now constructing massive pyramids to testify to their glory and power, courtiers and other important figures were able to adopt the mastaba for burial. In places like Saqqara, these mastabas would be lined up in long rows. By the dawn of the New Kingdom era of ancient Egypt (c. 1570 B.C.E.), however, there is no evidence of any further construction of mastabas.

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