Southeast Asian Architecture

Southeast Asian architecture refers to monumental buildings, chiefly pagodas, monasteries, and temple complexes in the area of Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Myanmar (Burma), Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. This area is also known as Indochina. Indian and Chinese architectural principles influenced the indigenous traditions and merged into regional individual styles. Many of the modern Southeast Asian buildings became models of contemporary architecture.

Brief History

From the fifth to the ninth century numerous Brahmin and Buddhist kingdoms arose in the area. Their buildings did not survive as they were made of perishable materials. However, most of the striking architectural structures of Southeast Asia were built before the thirteenth century. The temples and pagodas were made of stone or brick sculptured with stucco. Pagodas are containers for the relics of the Buddha, and they originate from the dome-shaped monuments called stūpas in India. They spread across Asia following the dissemination of Buddhism and assumed different forms. One of the most famous monuments in Southeast Asia is the Borobudur (778–850 CE) located on the Indonesian island of Java. This monumental stūpa is shaped as a three-dimensional Buddhist mandala and was influenced by Gupta and post-Gupta art. It is likely that it is based on the principles of the Vajrayāna doctrine of tantric Buddhism.

The kings of the Khmer empire (ninth–fifteenth centuries) commissioned massive temples following the ideal of east Indian architecture. The typical Khmer temple symbolizes the universe. It consists of a square-based plinth shaped in the form of a five-tiered pyramid and displays five or more tower shrines on top. The most important temple-complex is Angkor Wat, built in the twelfth century. At its height, Angkor housed more than a million people. Angkor became famous not only because of its unique temple architecture but also because of its innovative irrigation system. Angkor is one of the most important archaeological sites in this area.

The temples of the Khmer profoundly influenced the art and architecture of Southeast Asia. Much of the artwork of the Cambodian empire was produced by Mon artists. The Mon was a Buddhist tribe residing in southern Siam (Thailand). Their art was of post-Gupta or pre-Pāla style, belonging to the tradition of eastern India. Their influence on the Cambodian style culminated in the Buddhist temples Bayon and Angkor Thom (twelfth–thirteenth centuries). The latter became famous for its remarkable towers with monumental faces overlooking the four cardinal directions.

In southern Thailand, the Hindu Khmer temple at Lopburi (late twelfth century) is the best surviving example of the Khmer provincial art of Siam. Indigenous Thai architecture started from Sukhothai, the capital of the first kingdom of Siam (thirteenth –fourteenth centuries). The Sukhothai style with its outstanding temple complexes (wat), housing large Buddha statues and stūpas (chedi), subsequently influenced all Thai art.

In 1349 the capital was moved to Ayutthaya, which sparked a vivid stylistic exchange between these two cities. The architecture of the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries was characterized by the merging of the sukhothai style with Khmer elements produced mainly by Mon artisans. From the sixteenth century onward, Burmese influence became increasingly dominant in the southern area. The northern part of Siam and the Thai kingdoms of Laos retained the older styles. The last phase of Siamese art reached its highpoint during the seventeenth century characterized by the strong Burmese artistic influence.

The Bangkok period (eighteenth–nineteenth centuries) brought no further substantial artistic development but a reinterpretation of the old styles. Many chedis and large halls for monumental lying Buddha statues were built at that time. The Chinese influence is visible in the popular architectural ceramic pieces covering buildings like the Wat Arun in Bangkok. The architecture of Laos can be interpreted as a provincial version of Siam’s architecture. Most important here is the stūpa That Luang at Vientiane built in the sixteenth century.

Prior to 1056, two kingdoms were predominant in Burma (Myanmar): the Western Mon and the Tibeto-Burmese Pyu. The first of these two were relatives of the Eastern Mon, which produced art works in Siam and Cambodia. In 1056 the Burmese King Anawrahta unified the kingdoms and established Theravada Buddhism as the new state religion. The capital became Pagan. The Burmese temple architecture was highly influenced by Indian examples. The eleventh through thirteenth centuries can be called the golden age of Burmese art and architecture. During this time, thousands of stūpas and temples were built at Pagan. The most striking innovation was the opening up of the terraced platform of the stūpas into a temple interior. The abandoned Pagan is one of the most famous tourist attractions of Myanmar.

One of the tallest pagodas worldwide (approximately 100 meters) is the famous golden Shwedagon pagoda in Yangon. Tradition has it that the pagoda was built 2,500 years ago. It is believed to contain relics of four Buddhas (most probably the first four Buddhas of this eon). The impressive Shwedagon Pagoda belongs to the classical bell-shaped Burmese pagoda type. It became enlarged and was renovated several times throughout the centuries.

The Kingdom of Champa (present-day South Vietnam) generated remarkable pieces of architecture. During the early period (tenth century), traditional Khmer temples representing the universe were built. In addition, the remarkable Buddhist monastery Dong Duong was erected close to the first capital Mi Son. It was shaped according to Mahāyāna principles and decorated with reliefs depicting bodhisattvas (idealistic persons who have developed the wish to attain full awakening for the benefit of sentient beings) and freestanding Buddha statues. The later period (eleventh–thirteenth centuries) brought forth architecturally elaborate temples lacking ornamentation. Indigenous Vietnamese architecture did not come into existence until the nineteenth century.

The architecture of Malaysia is a mixture of different epochs. As a result of the various historical influences over the centuries, Hindu and Sikh temples follow Indian models, Buddhist temples in Southern Chinese style, and mosques in various architectural styles in all parts of the country. During the colonial era (1511–1957), the Portuguese, Dutch, and British coined the architecture, respectively. The vernacular architecture consists of sustainable buildings made of wood, bamboo, and woven fabric. Stilt villages and long houses are the characteristic forms. The houses are decorated with woodcarvings in local style. The original governmental palatial architecture was made of wood, some of which remained.

Southeast Asian Architecture Today

By 2015, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) had designated thirty-seven sites in Southeast Asian countries as World Heritage Sites. These include Angkor in Cambodia, Borobudur and Prambanan in Java, Pura Ulun Danu Batan in Bali, the Pyu ancient cities in Myanmar, Ayutthaya in Thailand, the Champa My Son sanctuary in Vietnam, and a number of colonial era cities and churches in the Philipinnes and Singapore.

Modern palaces in Southeast Asia are made in European style. The most striking modern buildings are the 88-story Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, erected in 1997. At that time, they were the tallest buildings in the world and are still remarkable for the sky bridge that connects them 170 meters above the ground. The small island of Singapore is situated at a natural meeting point of sea routes along the Malacca Straits and was a trading hub since ancient times. Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles hailing from the British empire established Singapore in the nineteenth century. Modern Singapore is a role model for innovative architecture, and prestige projects such as the Reflections at Keppel Bay or Marina Bay Sands dominate the skyline. The architecture of the Philippines was dominated by Spanish styles during the time of colonization (sixteenth–ninteenth centuries). During this period, the capital city Manila was founded, and many Christian churches were erected. Mansions were built combining Chinese, Spanish, and local Filipino elements. Later American architects had a strong stylistic impact on the buildings of the Philippines, and Manila was transformed into a modern city. During the twentieth century, the architecture was influenced by functionalism, but in the twenty-first century the old building traditions became revitalized.

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