African art

African art encompasses a broad collection of decorative works created within the African continent. As Africa is regarded as the birthplace of humankind, the earliest manifestations of African art can be linked to the first human populations to walk the planet. Because Africa is a vast continent without a single dominant culture, its art exhibits a wide variety of forms, with each individual culture creating unique representations of visual works. Many works of African art, such as textiles and pottery, were largely intended to serve utilitarian purposes, though across the continent, art was highly affected by religious expression, cultural ceremony, kinship, and the availability of materials. As such, the region has produced masterworks in a variety of artistic fields, including masks, statuary, metalwork, and fiber arts.

Background: Prehistoric Era (Prehistory)

Many of the earliest examples of African art were made of highly disposable materials such as wood that have been lost to time. The earliest known pieces of art that can be identified as expressions of human-made creativity were found in the Blombos Cave of South Africa, about 180 miles (300 kilometers) east of Cape Town. Archaeologists have uncovered signs of human inhabitation in the cave dating back to 100,000 years ago.

Within the cave were two carved pieces of stone and a series of beads made from seashells that are believed to be more than 70,000 years old. These works are among the oldest known examples of Stone Age art ever found. The two examples of rock art are small pieces of ochre that had been engraved with geometric crosshatch patterns. The deliberateness of the design and the discovery of stone tools honed into points resembling crayons suggest that the designs were artistic rather than functional, though their classification as art has not been universally accepted.

Another ancient example of Stone Age African art was found in South Africa’s Diepkloof Rock Shelter. Archaeologists discovered a series of fragments of engraved ostrich eggshell containers that were patterned with a variety of repetitive abstract patterns, such as bands stretching across the circumference of the objects, crosshatching, lines, and dots. Dated to about 60,000 years ago, these works demonstrate the existence of abstract design 30,000 years before the style appeared in Europe.

Namibia’s Apollo 11 Cave has examples of some of the first works of mobile painted art. Dated to about 25,000 years ago, they include a series of colored engravings that represented some of the earliest known examples of realistic art. Pictures of bees and other animals were painted on slabs of quartzite using charcoal. Other images of animals done in red and white paint were also found on several slabs of rock dating to about 10,500 years ago. Paintings found in the deserts of North Africa depict naturalistic scenes of humans hunting that were created between 4000 BCE and 800 CE.

Classical Egyptian Art (c. 6000 BCE–30 BCE)

Ancient Egyptian art is among the best-known examples of African art. The ancient Egyptian culture had no native word for art, as all decorative objects had a deliberate function. Nonetheless, works such as the ornate treasures found in the tomb of Tutankhamun are regarded as some of the greatest masterpieces of ancient Egypt. Similar to the objects found buried with Tutankhamun, the vast majority of Egyptian art known to contemporary experts was made as a record of the social elite.

Egyptian art dates back over 8,000 years to the pre-dynastic period when Egypt began to flourish as an independent culture. The primary works from this period were rock drawings and ceramics. The Narmer Palette, a two-sided ceremonial stone plate made about 3150 BCE, is an early example of a style that would grow to become characteristically Egyptian. Royalty is depicted in the traditional stiff, strident pose used throughout much of the Egyptian dynastic period. Symbols and animal motifs decorate the open space around these figures. The Narmer Palette depicts the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom.

This unification began the dynastic period of Ancient Egypt and ushered in a new era of art. About 2680 BCE, architects under King Djoser began the tradition of pyramid building, creating some of the earliest examples of landscaping and monument construction. However, Egypt’s New Kingdom—a period from about 1570 to 1069 BCE—is often regarded as representing the height of Egyptian artistic achievement. The various offerings found in Tutankhamun’s tomb were made during this period. The high quality of the artwork found in his tomb was intended to represent the young pharaoh’s importance and were meant to be used in the afterlife. The Amarna style of Egyptian art (c. 1350 BCE) is distinct for a more stylized depiction of the human form. Art reverted to more traditional forms after the death of the Amarna style’s patron, the pharaoh Akhenaten.

Ultimately, as the Egyptian empire weakened and was conquered by a series of foreign rulers, Egyptian artists began incorporating foreign influences such as the Hellenistic style of the Greeks. Egyptian artists did retain elements of traditional influences, though with less success.

Nok Culture (500 BCE–200 CE)

Though Egyptian art is the best-known of the ancient cultural traditions of Africa, other artistic civilizations were flourishing throughout the continent as well. In West Africa, the Nok culture, located in the northwest region of modern Nigeria, is famed for its terracotta sculptures. The Nok culture was unknown to modern archaeology until 1943. That year, a terracotta head was first discovered near the village of Nok, from which the culture derives its name. Though the Nok culture was among the first centers of African metalworking, it is best known for its terracotta artwork.

Nok sculptures represent the first works of figurative sculpture to be developed in the sub-Saharan region. Traditionally, they are hollow figures depicting a series of animals and humans, though depictions of human heads are perhaps best known. These fragments were likely once part of full figures. The heads were proportionally larger than the rest of the figure, which may explain their better survival rates. Some of these fragments are as large as a human head. These figures are shown in a surprising variety of active poses and include figures shown praying, standing, and sitting. Some experts have speculated that due to the care given to individual hairstyles, body ornamentation, and facial structures, the figures may have been intended to be portraits of living people. Other figures have been shown to have such illnesses as elephantiasis and facial paralysis. Whether these other figures represented real people or were intended to serve as wards against illness is unknown. Nok figurines are further characterized by holes where eyes and mouths would be. From a practical standpoint, this was done to allow heat to escape while being fired in kilns; however, Nok artists cleverly incorporated these details to give the statues distinct facial expressions.

Ife and Benin (1000–1800 CE)

The rival kingdoms of Ife and Benin were both located near the remains of the Nok culture. After the arrival of European explorers, Benin became one of the region’s most important trading centers, where visitors could buy such luxuries as gold, ivory, and enslaved people. It was believed to be a successor to the Nok culture and inherited its gift for terracotta figures. Both groups are thought to be ancestors of the Igbo peoples of West Africa. Over time, the Benin people became known for their metalworking. Called the Benin bronzes—despite being made of brass—these metalworks were created using a wax technique in which molten metal was poured into a wax cast of a previously-made sculpture to make a near-duplicate. Though Benin artists created various sculptures of heads, they were primarily known for a series of plaques that depicted famous historical events, scenes of daily life, or respected figures. In 1897, many of these plaques were taken from the royal palace of Benin by British forces in punishment for an earlier massacre of British civilians. Controversially, nearly all of these plaques remain in the hands of British, German, and American museums.

Although the city of Ife also likely served as a regional trading center, its members were part of a Kwa-speaking Yoruba people. From an artistic standpoint, the Ife culture’s creative impulses resulted in the manufacturing of a series of large metal sculptures, of which only a few dozen survive. Known for their naturalistic style, these figures are distinct from one another. It is unknown who they were meant to depict, although it is believed they were intended to perhaps represent gods, spirits, or important ancestors. Each figure is marked with lines running vertically down the middle of the figures’ faces. These marks may have been intended to signify temporary facial marks or ritual scars. The figures typically have a series of punched holes along the lips and jawline, and though the purpose of these holes is unknown, they may have been used to attach beards or veils to the figures’ faces. The great skill required to create these figures led early European explorers to speculate that they had been the work of an unknown Western culture, as they did not believe that any West African culture was capable of such a level of craftsmanship.

Lalibela (600–1200)

The Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela stand in testament to the vast interpretations of art across the African continent and the many utilitarian purposes for which it was intended. Located in the Amhara region of modern-day Ethiopia, these massive structures are masterworks of religious art. Ethiopia was among the first countries in Africa to adopt Christian practices in the fourth century. Beginning in the seventh century, the architects of Lalibela’s stone churches began to dig down into the pink volcanic rock of the Lasta Mountains. Ultimately, over a six-hundred-year span, eleven such churches were hewn from the rock. To reach several of these churches, visitors must climb down into cleared-out trenches to enter the structures. While many are still attached to the surrounding rock, several examples are fully free-standing on all four sides. Inside two of the churches are a series of life-size painted bas-relief portraits of saints, while the church of Biete Golgotha Mikael contains a portrait of Saint George, the patron saint of Ethiopia, slaying a dragon.

Great Zimbabwe (1100–1550)

Located in central Zimbabwe in Africa’s south, Great Zimbabwe was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, which existed between the twelfth and sixteenth centuries. Ruins are all that remain of a vast fortress that sits on the vast Zimbabwe plateau. This Bantu-speaking culture created jewelry made from copper, gold, glass beads, and seashells. However, the destruction of the city in the sixteenth century and subsequent looting by European colonists in the 1890s left little of value to aid contemporary anthropologists. A series of eight soapstone bird sculptures have earned contemporary fame. Standing less than sixteen inches (40 centimeters) tall, they depict fantastical creatures with a combination of human and avian features. They may have been intended to be emblems of royalty, but the inability of archaeologists to study them in their original positions has left the sculptures as enigmatic remnants of the Zimbabwe people. Despite the sculptures’ unknown purpose, a representation of one of these soapstone figurines is depicted on the Zimbabwean flag.

Overview

It is difficult to summarize thematic similarities for such an enormous collection of art styles found across such a vast region. However, anthropologists have identified several recurring traits that can typically be found throughout African artwork. Depictions of the human form are most common, as are depictions of sculptures displaying a level of self-composure that is intended to represent a person in control. African art also values depictions of balance and proportion that result in a lively vitality of form. Most representations of the human form depict youthful figures that are intended to symbolize vitality or fertility. Finally, African art idealizes the concept of luminosity, unflawed figures with a smooth finish except for occasional replications of ceremonial scarring. The term comes from the idea that the skin of such figures glows with an internal light born from the portrayal of physical perfection. This style also includes figures with deliberately rough surfaces and physical deformities that are intended to represent morally flawed people.

Historically, African art differed from many of its European equivalents in that it was rarely intended to be seen as static. That is, it was never meant to be stored in a permanent display. Rather, it was functional, ceremonial, and represented living culture. Artwork had important roles in the rituals and ceremonies of life and was often passed down through families and communities to continue its purpose. As a result, older pieces that survived into the modern era are often characterized by wear patterns from the hundreds of hands that held the art over time.

Contemporary African art continues to evolve, with many modern artists adopting international trends and incorporating new techniques and mediums. While organic materials continue to be used to create traditional art to preserve cultural traditions, glass, metal, and mixed media were increasingly used in the twenty-first century. For example, Ghanaian artist El Anatsui creates sculptures to bring awareness to environmental consciousness from copper wire and various recycled materials, while South African artist William Kentridge’s charcoal drawings focus on social and political themes.

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