Byzantine art

Byzantine (pronounced BIZ-uhn-teen) art describes any art made in the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine Empire between 330 and 1453 CE. Although located in the far eastern regions of the Roman Empire—its former capital of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) is located in present-day Turkey, for example—the early rulers of the Byzantine Empire were culturally Roman. They were inheritors of the political legacies of the Roman Empire. Despite its links to the Romans, the region had been colonized by the Greeks centuries earlier, and most of its residents spoke Greek rather than the state language of Latin. In addition, the heart of the Byzantine Empire sat on the geographic and political divide between Europe and Asia and included a broad cross-section of other indigenous cultural groups.

As a result, Byzantine art is a mixture of influences, including Roman, Greek, Egyptian Christian, and Eastern cultures such as the Persians. In particular, Byzantine art is known for its Orthodox Christian iconography in which works were made from a variety of materials, including ceramics, metals, enamels, ivories, and gemstones. Artisans retained their links to the aesthetics of classical antiquity and created paintings, frescoes, and architecture that are regarded as masterworks. Byzantine art is credited with heavily influencing such disparate later artistic styles as Renaissance painting, Russian religious iconography, and Islamic art.

Brief History

Byzantine art is in many ways a reflection of the history of the Byzantine Empire itself. The origins of this empire date back to the fourth century CE. In 330 CE, the Roman emperor Constantine I christened the former Greek city of Byzantium (after which sixteenth-century academics named this historical empire) as a new Rome. Constantine I renamed the city Constantinople after himself and made it the seat of his empire. This event came in the wake of Constantine's decision five years earlier to make Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire.

After Constantine's death in 337, the empire fell into disarray. Emperor Valentinian I decided to split the Roman Empire into eastern and western divisions to make management of its vast regions more practicable. The western half came under repeated attacks until its eventual collapse to barbarians in 476.

The remains of the Roman Empire in the east fared better. The eastern half was less vulnerable to attack from European invaders and had a stronger, more financially stable administrative center. The Byzantine Empire remained as a sustained political entity until 1453, when Constantinople was overrun by the Ottoman Turks.

The empire had several cultural zeniths during which Byzantine arts saw great expression. The first of these came under the reign of Justinian I who ruled from 527–565. During this period, the Byzantines constructed several buildings that remain part of the landscape of contemporary Istanbul. For example, the Hagia Sophia, which was completed in 537, is one of the most impressive remaining examples of Byzantine architecture. The reign of Basil I (867–886) offered a similar level of prosperity, resulting in a second cultural renaissance of Byzantine art and architecture.

Overview

As the Byzantine Empire existed for over a thousand years, Byzantine art is often divided into three phases: Early Byzantine (330–842), Middle Byzantine (843–1204), and Late Byzantine (1205–1453). The Early Byzantine period is characterized by the spread of Christianity across the formerly pagan regions of the Eastern Roman Empire that had worshipped Greco-Roman and other local deities. The influence of iconography on Byzantine art begins in this period. Icons are devotional images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and Christian saints, and they are among the most common and well-known works of Byzantine art. This early period also marked the rise of Constantinople as a center of Byzantine arts and culture. Many skilled artisans from locations west moved to Constantinople to create iconographic works for this increasingly influential Christian city.

In the eighth and ninth centuries, the Byzantine Empire became consumed by a controversy over the role of icons in religious faith. Icons had taken on increasing importance in Byzantine religious society. Many people viewed these works as offering people a personal connection with the depicted saints and martyrs. Wealthy citizens paid to have intricate icons created to gain favor with specific figures. However, many important religious leaders increasingly believed that it was blasphemous to revere any icon that had been made by human hands. From 715 to 843, Byzantine society was wracked by this debate. Individual emperors would order the destruction of all human-made icons—a process called iconoclasm—while their successors would again legalize their creation and use. Many important works of Byzantine religious art were lost during this period.

In 843, the veneration of icons was again permanently allowed, beginning the Middle Era of Byzantine Art. During this phase, the Byzantines expanded their territories to include Slavic lands to the north and Arab territories to the south. As wealth flowed into Constantinople, rich citizens funded increased patronage of the arts. Works of cloisonné (in which enamel and other inlayed materials are used to decorate metal objects), ivory, and stone reached new heights of detail during this era. Illuminated manuscripts with ornate illustrations reached similar artistic heights. Icons from this era often included more biographical details, and scenes from the saints' lives would be shown surrounding the primary image. Miniature mosaics that could be easily transported by worshippers assumed greater prominence as well.

In 1204, Crusaders ransacked the city of Constantinople, beginning the Late Byzantine era. Their armies looted the city, seizing or destroying many precious works of Byzantine art and architecture, including the Library of Constantinople. This led to a period of political instability in the Byzantine Empire. Over the next two centuries, it lost much of its territory and became less influential on the world stage. While the empire experienced a new construction boom, the patronage that often drove artistic momentum was less evident. Religious iconography, particularly of the more modest portable variety, remained a key aspect of the art from this period, however.

Byzantine art is perhaps best known for its production of ornate religious iconography. Beginning with religious mosaics and wall frescoes, the Byzantines created detailed works dedicated to the worship of religious figures. Byzantine art is also known for its ivory triptychs, chalices, and paintings. Byzantine paintings are often characterized by their one-dimensionality and lack of perspective. This resulted in detailed and formal-appearing works that nonetheless seemed flat, particularly in comparison to later works from the Renaissance. The Byzantines are credited with the creation of bounded manuscripts, including some intricately illustrated copies called codices, which replaced scrolls as primary repositories of information.

Bibliography

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