Space Robotics
Space robotics is a specialized field focused on the design and construction of machines capable of operating in the harsh and remote environments of outer space. These robots are utilized for exploration and research, performing tasks too dangerous or distant for humans. Key components of space robotics include a robust structure, power sources, mobility systems, control mechanisms, sensors, and specific tools tailored for their missions. Given the extreme conditions of space, these robots are engineered to endure significant temperatures and radiation, often requiring materials and processes that can withstand such challenges.
Various types of robotic systems play important roles in space exploration, including planetary rovers that analyze soil and gases on celestial bodies like Mars, and orbital robots that gather data from satellites and space probes. Notable missions include NASA's rovers, such as Curiosity and Perseverance, which have been integral in studying Mars's environment and potential for life. Moreover, humanoid robots, like NASA's Robonaut, assist astronauts aboard the International Space Station, performing maintenance and operational tasks. The development and testing of these robotic systems are ongoing, facilitating humanity's quest to explore beyond Earth and gain deeper insights into our solar system and beyond.
Space Robotics
FIELDS OF STUDY: Aerospace Engineering; Orbital Mechanics; Space Technology
ABSTRACT: Human curiosity about outer space has led to the development of robotic technology that provides information and images of places far from Earth. Two types of space robotics are robotic spacecraft, such as satellites, and planetary rovers, which land on a planet and explore the terrain. Scientists are testing humanoid robots that can work in space and service robots that can refuel or repair existing spacecraft in orbit. This technology is important, as it allows humans to explore and work in space with less risk, including in areas beyond human capacity.
Robotic Structures and Systems
Space robotics involves designing and building machines that can work in the adverse conditions and remote locations of outer space. To work effectively, all robots need a body, power, mobility, control, sensors, and whatever tools they require for their purpose. Robots can go where it is too dangerous or too far away for humans to travel. Robotics was a natural solution to the challenges of exploring the moon, the sun, and other planets.
Structures and systems that work on Earth were not designed for the extreme conditions of outer space. The harsh temperatures and other punishing environmental conditions beyond Earth’s atmosphere require numerous adjustments to robotic systems. Scientists have to allow for size and weight limitations in addition to finding materials and processes that can survive the difficult conditions. Space robots require special power sources and recharging abilities. They usually run on batteries and solar power. Electronic parts must be prepared through a process called radiation hardening to protect them during exposure to radiation. Robotic structures and systems are tested and retested for durability and a long lifespan. Once a space robot is launched, it usually cannot be repaired.
The field of orbital robotics involves using unmanned technology and spacecraft, such as satellites, space probes, and service equipment, to get information about space. Planetary rovers land and explore where humans have yet to venture. They roll across rough terrain taking samples of soil and gases, testing them, and sending the results back to Earth. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has landed several rovers on Mars. The shape of the rovers was designed to move through the terrain and protect the systems so that the rovers can complete the work they were sent to do.
Space robotics includes the use of mechanical arms that can help astronauts complete tasks or make repairs. NASA has also designed humanoid robots called robonauts. The scientists made the first successful model in 2000 and they continue to improve them. Another project has involved building robotic spacecraft that could service orbiting craft and satellites, such as the International Space Station (ISS).
Early Robotics
Robots have a long history in the imagination of mankind, if not in reality. Leonardo da Vinci was among the early thinkers who imagined some sort of mechanical man. Yet until the middle of the twentieth century, the field of robotics was not advanced enough to provide machines for practical use. By 1975, mechanical arms were in use on industrial assembly lines. In the 1980s, computer-controlled walkers were tested in hazardous terrain. Technology continued to advance, and in the 1990s robots were designed to do more varied and independent tasks.
Since that time, NASA has been building and field testing what it calls "exploration systems" technologies. NASA’s Computational Sciences Division at the Ames Research Center in Mountain View, California, builds and tests a variety of robots. Its testing sites use terrain similar to what might be found on the moon or Mars. The scientists can work with rovers and human-robot teams. They test such features as the command and control interface as well as teleoperation, through which the human controls the robot. Machine vision and compensation uses camera "eyes" and computer software to allow the rover to track interest points and choose a route. Machine vision was used on the K9 rover to navigate various types of terrain and avoid hazards in its path. Flying robots, such as Personal Satellite Assistants and the Yamaha rotorcraft RMAX, use machine vision for navigation and control in flight.
Unmanned Space Exploration
Once humans succeeded in sending astronauts into simple orbits around the Earth, they began to look farther into the galaxy. The moon was the first target for exploration. However, before scientists could plan a manned mission, they had to have more information. NASA sent robotic spacecraft, such as the Surveyor missions, to see whether it was feasible to send humans. Surveyor 1 made a successful soft landing on the moon in 1966. It sent more than ten thousand photographs back from a remote-controlled camera. Later Surveyor missions included a robotic arm, which was able to pick up soil samples from the surface and analyze them for chemical elements. While the Surveyor robotics allowed for numerous important discoveries, the long-term purpose of the missions was to prepare to land a human on the moon. The Surveyor studies included testing the ability of the lunar surface to support the weight of a manned spacecraft. More than two years after its soft landing, Surveyor 3 received a visit from American astronauts who had arrived on the Apollo 12 lunar module.
Orbital Robotics
The initial use of robotics in space exploration was through satellites designed to fly by or orbit planets and send pictures back to Earth. To ensure that such missions reach their targets, scientists must allow for a variety of conditions and forces in space. They use mathematical formulas and algorithms, or predicted patterns, to design the robotics and each detail needed to put the satellite into the desired orbit. While scientists initially had some experience in launching rockets to deploy satellites, robotic technology was not well developed when the first orbiters were sent up. There were many challenges in working in the space environment. Scientists had to design electromechanical and control systems that would allow them to operate the machines at great distances. Thermal considerations affected the technology, which had to be made to withstand extremely high and low temperatures. Radiation hardening was needed to protect electronic components as the spacecraft circled distant objects in the solar system.
The Ulysses mission was launched from the space shuttle Discovery in 1990 to orbit the sun and gather information from positions that could not be seen from Earth. The robotic spacecraft carried ten instruments to measure and characterize cosmic radiation, energy particles, and the solar wind. Because scientists had foreseen how hostile conditions in space would be and designed the orbital robot accordingly, Ulysses orbited the sun and continued to send information to Earth for nearly twenty years. NASA scientists could observe and measure the solar wind for a long period of time, revealing that it was gradually dying down.
Humanoid, or human-like robots, are popular in books, films, and video games, but are rarely used in space. However, NASA developed a humanoid model called Robonaut 2 to help astronauts. R2, as it is called, has a helmet-like head with cameras that function as eyes. It also has moving arms and hands with fingers that can hold and use tools like a person does. It can be attached to a stand for stationary work or mounted on wheels or legs for mobility. The scientists can control R2 remotely using teleoperation, or they can program it to handle simple tasks by itself. NASA sent one to the ISS in 2011 to assist the astronauts and see if it would perform well in space. The robot was capable of helping the astronauts with repairs, but it is more likely to be used for routine cleaning and upkeep. This can give the astronauts more time to complete their scientific studies. Because it is in orbit on the ISS, R2 experiences weightlessness, or microgravity. Microgravity locomotion—moving in low gravity—is a challenge for both humans and robots. NASA later sent a pair of climbing legs for R2 so the astronauts could see how well the robot could navigate the spacecraft in such conditions.
Planetary Rovers
The planet Mars has always attracted the interest of humans. Scientists imagine it to be a place that might support life in some form. After exploring the planet with orbiting robots, NASA expanded the Mars mission to include planetary rovers. The ultimate goal has been to send astronauts to Mars. However, until that becomes possible, robots on its surface have taken thousands of images and completed a variety of experiments there. This long-term project has three goals in addition to future exploration by humans. They are to learn about the climate, to examine the geology of the planet, and to determine whether there ever was life on Mars.
NASA has sent five unmanned robotic vehicles to the red planet to gather data from various areas. The first efforts at using planetary rovers were not very successful, but they helped scientists improve the design and increase the abilities and efficiency of the rovers. The first Mars rover, Sojourner, landed on the planet’s surface in July of 1997. It was followed by Spirit and Opportunity, which both reached Mars in the winter of 2004. More than ten years later, Opportunity was still operating and had traveled more than 40 kilometers (25 miles). Later, Curiosity was able measure the relative humidity in the atmosphere of Mars, which ranged from 5 to 100 percent, depending on the season. Using its built-in testing instrument, the robot confirmed the identity of one of the minerals that had been observed through orbital robotics. It also made progress in the hunt for signs of life. Curiosity found evidence of a lake bed where the environment would have been favorable for the development of a simple life form. In 2021, Perseverance landed on Mars. This rover included a mini-helicopter, Ingenuity, which conducted the first powered flight on another planet. In addition, China landed a rover, Zhurong, on Mars in 2021 as well.
Although Venus is the closest planet to Earth, its extremely hot temperature has made it difficult to land robotic spacecraft on its surface. Russia has landed several Venera probes on Venus. However, they have only been able to transmit for a few hours at most. NASA has been working on a new type of rover that would hopefully be able to withstand the harsh conditions for longer.
PRINCIPAL TERMS
- command and control interface: communication link allowing humans at a ground station to remotely control robots.
- machine vision and compensation: computerized imaging system used in robotics to allow independent navigation and tracking of objects.
- orbital robotics: field that focuses on using robotic technology such as satellites, space probes, and service spacecraft and equipment in space.
- planetary rover: mobile robotic science lab sent to explore and study the surface of other planets.
- power sources and recharging: batteries and cells needed to run space robots, typically using solar power for electricity and recharging.
- radiation hardening: process of making electronic components resistant to radiation in space.
- teleoperation: remote operation and control of robotics.
- thermal considerations: how exposure to heat or cold affects components in spacecraft or robotics.
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