An Lushan
An Lushan was a general in the Tang Dynasty of China, commanding three armies during Emperor Xuanzong's reign (r. 712-756). His early life remains shrouded in mystery, with conflicting accounts characterizing him variously as a depraved thief or a noble figure of Central Asian descent, possibly Sogdian or Turkish. An Lushan initially served in the military border patrol, where he rose through the ranks over a decade before being appointed to significant military roles. His rebellion (755-763) stands as a critical event marking the decline of the Tang Dynasty, catalyzed by political rivalries, particularly involving Yang Guifei, the emperor's influential concubine.
The rebellion led to devastating consequences, including widespread famine and a catastrophic population decline from 53 million to just 17 million within a decade. Following An Lushan's death in 757, the conflict persisted, resulting in significant territorial losses for China and contributing to the dynasty's eventual downfall. The repercussions of An Lushan's rebellion resonate in Chinese history, signifying a pivotal shift in the balance of power, military strength, and the socio-political landscape of the region.
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An Lushan
Chinese rebel leader
- Born: 703
- Birthplace: Sogdiana, Central Asia (now in Uzbekistan)
- Died: 757
- Place of death: Sha'anxi Province, China
An Lushan led an attempted coup d’état against reigning Tang emperor Xuanzong, which triggered a tumultuous, decades-long civil war, leading to centuries of China’s decline at the hands of its neighbors.
Early Life
An Lushan (ahn loo-shahn) was the general commanding the three armies of China during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong (Hsüan-tsung, r. 712-756) during the Tang Dynasty (T’ang; 618-907). The truth of his parentage, early life, and upbringing are difficult to interpret from official Chinese accounts, as many events have clearly been fabricated to disparage An Lushan’s reputation. An Lushan’s rebellion (755-763) counted as one of the final chapters in the long, famous rule of Emperor Xuanzong and one of the first steps in a long decline of China’s fortunes. In China, the story of the An Lushan rebellion is principally told from the point of view of the emperor Xuanzong and his beautiful concubine, Yang Guifei (Yang Kuei-fei), as a cautionary tale warning of the impermanence of worldly love and the dangers of being distracted from crucial tasks.
Virtually all the accounts of the young An Lushan variously describe him as a depraved thief, an orphan, and a vicious thug. Although it is probable that as a young man he led a seminomadic and sordid existence, the accusations against him have primarily been made by later ethnic Chinese writers to vilify a man they held responsible for the destruction of the empire.
Scholars have likewise puzzled over the truth of An Lushan’s name and origin. His name suggests that he was of Sogdian descent, from the Central Asian steppes, and various other sources claim his family may have been Turkish or from Samarqand. His given name, Lushan, is a Chinese corruption of Roxana, who was the Iranian wife of Alexander the Great, bolstering the theory that An Lushan was of Sogdian or Parthian descent. He was keenly aware that his race was held against him throughout most of his life.
For all these reasons, not much is known about the early life of An Lushan until he became a member of the Chinese military border patrol, in northeastern China near the Korean border, perhaps as early as age eighteen. It is not certain how the An family arrived in northeastern China from Central Asia. An Lushan’s father may have worked in the markets along the Silk Road as a trader, and many accounts mention that An Lushan was fluent in numerous languages. Other scholars point to clan warfare in Central Asia that may have dislodged the family, as An Lushan’s mother came from a noble family. Regardless, by 713, An’s family had fled Central Asia and settled in China. Nothing is known of his existence for the next few decades, until his name surfaces again in 733, as the lieutenant of a military general who won a major victory over the border tribes of the Xi (Hsi) and the Khitan in the northeast. As it is unlikely that he could have risen to this high rank and been given the authority to command troops in battle without long service in the military, presumably An Lushan had served for more than a decade in the army by the time he was thirty-three years old.
Life’s Work
The Tang Dynasty, during which An Lushan’s military career progressed, represented China at its height militarily, economically, and culturally. Its influence dominated Central and South Asia, reaching Vietnam, and East Asia, extending to Japan. Despite its strengths, however, the dynasty lurched from succession crisis to succession crisis, interrupted by long periods in which a capable ruler would consolidate the bureaucracy and resume the upward trend of the dynasty’s fortunes.
A succession crisis had marked the beginning of Xuanzong’s reign. Although Xuanzong is often revered as the greatest ruler of China during the imperial period, it is remarkable that he ever became emperor. The Tang Dynasty had precipitously lurched from ruler to ruler ever since the abdication of the second emperor of the dynasty, Taizong (T’ai-tsung; r. 627-649). Although many of Taizong’s later years were absorbed with the succession, the emperor never found a capable heir and eventually was succeeded by Gaozong (Kao-tsung; r. 650-683), a well-meaning but inept son. Gaozong suffered a stroke in 660, and his reign was overshadowed by the domination of his wife, the later empress Wu Hou (r. 690-705). Wu Hou was the true power behind the throne in China from 660 to 690 and ruled in her own name from 690 until her death in 705. Xuanzong had barely survived as an infant during Wu Hou’s reign of terror. His mother, the concubine Dou, had been executed, and most of his childhood had been spent as a virtual prisoner in the imperial palace. On becoming ruler of China, however, Xuanzong fully lived up to his honorific title of Ming Huan (brilliant emperor).
As emperor, Xuanzong’s first steps included dismantling the harem and removing the courtiers and concubines who had been running the government since the 660’. He replaced those in power with impartial officials who had acquired their positions by passing the civil service examinations. The emperor strictly forbade his wife’s family from interfering in politics or becoming involved in nationally sensitive industries such as iron, silk, or salt. Xuanzong retained power over the provinces by enforcing a system that regularly rotated provincial governors and forced accountancy before and after each rotation. This greatly curtailed the corruption that had run rampant through the country over the past four generations. Xuanzong’s reliance on scholar-officials directly contributed to the success of the administration, but a closer look reveals a subtle politics that laid the groundwork for An Lushan’s rebellion.
The court during the height of Xuanzong’s reign was roughly split between two factions: the literati, who had passed the civil service examinations and placed emphasis on writing memorials to the throne, studious readings of history, and cultivating a sense of culture, art, and poetics, and the pragmatists, who prided themselves on problem solving and practical experience. The latter group had not had the privileges of education or a noble birth but instead had made their name as capable administrators.
The pragmatists were led by Li Linfu, who helped restore order to the census rolls and diversify the state’s reliance on taxes on silk. Li Linfu was a minor provincial official who made his name through the provision of grain and other key products to military units on the frontier. A series of rapid promotions brought him to the highest levels of imperial power. The ascendancy of Li Linfu was to begin a subtle reshaping of the Chinese imperial court. The literati resented the new administrators, and seemingly innocent clashes involving political policy masked the direct attempts both sides were making to seize total control.
Meanwhile, Xuanzong’s wife had failed to bear a male heir. The frustrated Xuangzong began to consort with Yang Guifei, a courtesan of divine beauty. Her real name was Yang Yuhuan; guifei, which meant “first-class prostitute,” was a somewhat pejorative title. Soon after entering the emperor’s court, Yang Guifei entranced Xuanzong, who soon lost his profound interest in governing and began to focus solely on her comforts and interests. Although he had prevented his wife’s family from taking on court positions, Xuanzong granted major positions and powers to Yang Guifei’s family, and in particular her cousin, Yang Guozhong (Yang Kuo-chung).
Such was the situation when the first major battle between East Asia and Central Asia was waged. In the Battle of Talas River (751), a Muslim Arabic army dealt a devastating blow to the Tang forces, who were commanded by general Gao Xianzhi. The humiliating defeat led to a settlement of Uighur Turks living in Hami, in modern Gansu Province, and the ultimate loss of Dunhuang, the famous Buddhist settlement on the Silk Road. Li Linfu was able to heap blame on the literati for the disaster and install An Lushan as the new general commanding the three armies. Yang Guifei, seeing the importance of counterbalancing political and military interests, adopted An Lushan as her son.
As the intrigue grew, palace ministers were torn between backing military leaders and the family of Yang Guifei. As the emperor lost interest in all but his affair with his concubine, two sides emerged: the family of Yang Guifei, as represented by Yang Guozhong; and the military generals of An Lushan, backed by his minister Shi Suming (Shih Ssu-ming) and Li Linfu.
The proximate cause of An Lushan’s rebellion was Yang Guozhong’s accession as prime minister in 755, a post An Lushan himself coveted. When An Lushan marched on the capital that winter, Chang’an fell without a battle. Xuanzong escaped to Chengdu (in modern Sichuan Province) but was forced by his bodyguard to order the execution of Yang Guifei en route. Perhaps there is no more fitting description of the situation than that of the legendary Chinese poet Bo Juyi (Po Chü-yi; 772-846):
The emperor could not save her. He could only cover his face
However, neither the death of Yang Guifei nor that of An Lushan himself would end the rebellion. Xuanzong escaped to Chengdu and abdicated in favor of his son Suzong (Su-tsung; r. 756-762). An Lushan was slain in 757 by his own son, while his ally Shi Suming remained in power. The majority of Suzong’s reign was taken up with fighting the civil war, which did not end until 763.
The war was an absolute disaster for China. Both sides employed scorched-earth and forced-conscription tactics, which resulted in a near total destruction of agriculture. The ensuing famines, coupled with the war, resulted in almost unimaginable numbers of deaths. China’s population dropped from 53 million in 754 to 17 million in 764. Although ultimately Suzong’s heir, Daizong (Tai-tsung; r. 762-779), would end the war and restore the legitimacy of the Tang, the devastation prohibited the dynasty from ever regaining its previous level of achievement. Invasion on all sides led to the loss of significant territories, and the Song Dynasty (Sung; 960-1279) would fail to achieve the restoration of the power and glory of the Tang.
Significance
The impact of the An Lushan rebellion on world history cannot be overstated. Before the rebellion, China was unquestionably the most powerful nation on earth, with economic and military influence that ranged from Japan to Indonesia to the Middle East. The nearly 60 percent drop in population and retrenchment of its border military forces led to the loss of Chinese suzerainty over nearly 50 percent of its land area and hastened the fall of the Tang Dynasty. With the serious decline in military forces and population, China was forced to continually retrench and sign numerous iniquitous treaties with border kingdoms for the sake of peace. Although it recovered somewhat in the Song Dynasty, China failed to restore its former glory, making it an easy target for the Mongols, who made it their first target during the conquests of Genghis Khan.
Bibliography
Ebrey, Patricia. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook. New York: Free Press, 1993. A useful overview on Chinese history from ancient times to the present, including excellent bibliographies.
Graff, David. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. New York: Routledge, 2002. Covers military service on the frontier, where An Lushan served before becoming a Chinese general. Deals directly with the An Lushan uprising and gives highlights of a few of the major battles.
Li Chenyang, ed. Sage and the Second Sex: Confucianism, Ethics, and Gender. Chicago: Open Court, 2000. Explores, among other topics, how the Yang Guifei affair was viewed by the court and the backlash that women’s rights took after the restoration of imperial sovereignty.
Pulleyblank, Edward G. The Background of the Rebellion of An Lu-Shan. New York: Oxford University Press, 1955. Pulleyblank’s work remains the classic regarding the period and has an excellent bibliography.