Margaret Thatcher

Prime minister of the United Kingdom (1979–1990)

• Born: October 13, 1925
• Birthplace: Grantham, Lincolnshire, England
• Died: April 8, 2013

Through fiscally conservative economic policies, Thatcher, the first woman prime minister in British history, lessened public dependence on government and moved the nation in the direction of increased global competition and self-reliance.

Early Life

Margaret Thatcher was born Margaret Hilda Roberts in Grantham, Lincolnshire, England, the second daughter of Alfred and Beatrice Roberts. She grew up in a small apartment above her parents’ grocery store in Grantham, a small town about one hundred miles from London. She and her older sister, Muriel, were reared in a very strict fashion by their parents, who were devout Methodists. Alfred Roberts had little formal education but was a prominent citizen of Grantham. He was well-read and served as mayor of his hometown. He was eager for his daughters to obtain the education he never had and encouraged them in their studies. Thatcher’s family instilled in her the values of hard work, thrift, and self-reliance instruction that had a lasting effect on her. An outstanding student at the Huntingtower Road Elementary School, Thatcher passed the scholarship examination a year earlier than normal and attended the Kesteven and Grantham Girls’ Grammar School.

Through hard work and diligence, Thatcher achieved what few women of her day achieved, entrance into the University of Oxford. In 1945, she was accepted to Somerville College, Oxford, where she majored in chemistry. She continued her hard work at Oxford, disdaining the frivolities of less serious students. At Oxford, she developed an interest in politics, joining the University Conservative Club, of which she became chair in 1946. She received her degree in 1947, taking second-class honors.

Upon graduation, Thatcher went to work as a research chemist and also continued her interest in politics by joining the local Conservative Party. During her four years as a research chemist, Thatcher stood for Parliament twice. In 1949, at the age of twenty-four, she was chosen to run for the seat in Dartford, Kent. In the campaign, she criticized the Labour government’s economic policies, insisting that taxes should be lowered to create incentives for the working class. That position and her opposition to nationalization would be consistent themes throughout her political life. Although a very young and attractive candidate, she lost in this strong Labour constituency. In 1951, Thatcher ran again in the same constituency. Though she was unsuccessful, she made a favorable impression. On the day of the 1951 election, she became engaged to Denis Thatcher, a successful businessman ten years her senior. They were married the following December at Wesley Chapel in London. Two years later, their twins, Carol and Mark, were born.

Before having children, Thatcher had decided to pursue a law degree. She qualified as a barrister in 1954 and began practicing law, but she was eager to return to the political arena. Though eminently qualified for Parliament with a legal background, a strong and articulate manner of speaking, the experience of two campaigns behind her, and a penchant for hard work, she made several unsuccessful attempts, finally succeeding in 1959, within a week of her thirty-fourth birthday. She represented the North London constituency of Finchley. Thatcher’s persistence, hard work, patience, and singleness of purpose, values she acquired in her youth, paid dividends as she prepared to begin her new career in the House of Commons.

Life’s Work

Thatcher’s introduction to the House of Commons in February 1960 was an auspicious occasion as she delivered an impressive speech without notes. In this initial speech she introduced a bill guaranteeing the press and the public the right to attend meetings of local government councils. Her colleagues were impressed, and her parliamentary reputation was established. She also proved to be a quick learner and an effective debater. Consequently, in 1962, Conservative prime minister Harold Macmillan made her a junior minister as joint parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. She later served as opposition spokesperson in several areas, including pensions and education, during the tenure of the Labour government.

This experience proved valuable when the Conservatives won the next election in 1970, and the new prime minister, Edward Heath, appointed Thatcher minister of education and science in the new cabinet. Her educational philosophy was based on personal experience as well as her conservative inclinations. She strongly advocated improvement in education but opposed the controls placed on education by the former Labour government. Local governments, she insisted, should be able to choose the kind of secondary schools they wished to have and the specific programs they wished to offer based on the needs of the students. Her reputation suffered because of an economic measure in which the education ministry put a stop to free milk in schools except for the poor and then raised the price of school lunches. These measures aroused a storm of protest, and she was dubbed “Margaret Thatcher, the milk snatcher.” Undaunted by the criticism, the determined Thatcher stoically bore the criticism of a cabinet decision not her own. She was praised, however, for her effective school construction and teacher-improvement programs.

In the February 1974 election, the Conservatives were narrowly defeated. Once again in the opposition ranks, Thatcher was appointed opposition spokesperson for environment, treasury, and economic affairs. Trained as a tax lawyer, she proved to be a brilliant debater in the complex area of public finance. Heath at this time came under criticism from within his party, some seeing him as dictatorial, others as a loser without popular appeal. In 1974, the party adopted new rules for electing the party leader. Elections were to be held annually with three ballots. The winner had to receive a majority of votes and total at least 15 percent more votes than the closest rival. The election was held in February, 1975, and fortunately for Thatcher, her close friend and the leading Conservative candidate, Sir Keith Joseph, withdrew from the election, leaving an opening for her to run. She defeated Heath on the second ballot, becoming the first woman in British history to head a major political party. As leader of the opposition in the House of Commons, Thatcher’s stirring speeches attacked socialism and continuously emphasized her strong faith in the virtues of self-reliance and independence.

Over the winter of 1978 and 1979, the Labour Party was beset by a crippling series of strikes for higher wages by public service workers. The government gave in to the unions’ demands of a 20 percent wage increase, which was met with scathing criticism by Thatcher, who called for a vote of no confidence in the Labour government. Since the government in power is the majority party, votes of no confidence seldom succeed. In this case, however, the March 28, 1979, vote of no confidence was carried by one vote. An election to form a new government was called for May 3.

During the campaign the Conservatives were strengthened by public concern over inflation, unemployment, and the power of the unions. Thatcher’s promises to limit the power of the unions, cut taxes, and promote economic freedom were key planks in the Conservative platform. The Conservatives won by a forty-three-seat majority and Thatcher became Great Britain’s, and Europe’s, first woman prime minister.

During the first two years of her government, Thatcher’s economic program of frugality and reduced government spending did not lead to an improved economy, since by early 1981 Britain suffered from the worst recession since the 1930’s. Members of her own party, moderate Conservatives called wets (slang for those who do not stick to their principles), called on her to change her economic policies. She remained resolute, however, insisting that until competition was restored and government spending curtailed, the economy would never improve. Adding to the economic woes was a series of riots in 1981 in the inner cities, as frustrated young people went on a rampage. Experts predicted certain defeat for Thatcher in the next election. In a surprising move, however, on April 2, 1982, Argentina invaded and captured the British-claimed Falkland Islands and the situation changed. This following Falkland Islands War would reveal Thatcher’s resolute character.

The invasion was condemned by Thatcher, who termed it an unprovoked attack without justification or legality. Her determination to use force met with much criticism in Britain and elsewhere. The surrender of Argentina two months later proved to be a tremendous boost to national morale, which had greatly diminished since World War II, and provided new political life for Thatcher, who called for elections in June, 1983. Thatcher’s party won an overwhelming victory over the weak and disorganized Labour Party with a 144-seat majority. However, a bitter coal miners’ strike in 1985 and unemployment of three million people marred Thatcher’s second term. She also survived an attempt in 1984 on her life in Brighton by Irish Republican Army (IRA) terrorists. Aided by the 1980s North Sea oil boom, her government survived these crises.

Although Thatcher did not have to call for elections until June 1988 (in Britain a government must call an election within five years), she decided that June 1987 was the optimum time for elections. Aided again by divisions within and between the opposition parties, the Conservatives won the June election by a 101-seat majority, and Thatcher became the first prime minister in modern British political history to win three successive general elections. Following the election, she indicated that her third government would be dedicated to extending freedom of choice, particularly in housing and education. Control of inflation through sound financial policies, however, would remain Thatcher’s highest priority. Regeneration of the inner cities was another central theme for the Thatcher government. Her government had effected tremendous change in Britain since 1979, and with this victory she could continue curbing socialism and make Britain a home-owning, share-owning democracy. The shopkeeper’s daughter with old-fashioned values, extraordinary determination, and singleness of purpose had made history a second time.

In addition to having success in her domestic policies, Thatcher also was a powerful force in world affairs. Thatcher, along with her longtime friend and ally, US president Ronald Reagan, was very much involved in the forces and the political climate that led Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to initiate the political and economic changes that led to the breakup of the Soviet Union and an end to the Cold War. In 1998, First Lady Nancy Reagan presented the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award to her in appreciation for her role in this matter.

In 1988, Thatcher weighed in on the European Union (EU) issue. While supporting British membership, she felt that the EU should not concern itself with the single currency idea but should deal with matters such as free trade, free markets, and competition. In 1990, she urged Reagan’s successor, George H. W. Bush, to send troops to the Middle East to oust Saddam Hussein’s army from Kuwait.

Thatcher’s third term, however, ended in her forced resignation. While she vigorously opposed any infringement of British sovereignty, she did support Europe’s move toward a single market. The issue caused fracturing within her party. Thatcher’s stubborn insistence on a poll tax, which was imposed equally on rich and poor and was extremely unpopular, caused a critical weakening of her administration. She stepped down on November 22, 1990.

Shortly after Thatcher’s resignation, Queen Elizabeth II awarded her the prestigious Order of Merit, one of Britain’s highest honors. This was one of many honors and awards that she would receive over the next decade and a half; she was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by George H. W. Bush in 1991. She retired from the House of Commons as new elections were held in 1992. The sixty-six-year-old Thatcher was given a life peerage by the House of Lords, where she continued to speak out on domestic and international issues. Baroness Thatcher criticized the Maastricht Treaty as going too far, and she criticized ethnic cleansing in the Balkans, which she feared could lead to a holocaust in Bosnia. In 1995, she was made a member of the Order of the Garter, Britain’s highest order of chivalry.

Retirement from Parliament did not slow Thatcher down. In 1992, she was hired by Philip Morris Tobacco Company as a geopolitical consultant. Also in 1992 she became chancellor of the University of Buckingham, a position she held until 1998. From 1993 to 2000 she was chancellor of the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. She also managed to find the time to write her memoirs in two best-selling volumes, The Downing Street Years (1993) and The Path to Power (1995).

Never one to shy away from controversy, Thatcher visited former Chilean president Augusto Pinochet Ugarte in 1998, who was under house arrest in Surrey. Pinochet was fighting extradition to Chile to face charges of human rights violations. Pinochet had been a strong supporter of Britain in the Falklands War. She expressed deep sadness at his death in December 2006.

Although she had been out of office since 1990, Thatcher’s influence continued in the policies of her successor, John Major, and even in the policies of Major’s successor, Labour prime minister Tony Blair, who continued privatization as well as other aspects of what came to be called Thatcherism.

In March, 2002, it was announced that Thatcher had suffered several small strokes and her doctors advised her to make no more public speeches. In June, 2003, her husband of more than fifty years died. Because of the decline in her own health, the once vigorous figure who had earned the nickname Iron Lady made few public appearances after her husband’s death. For President Reagan’s funeral in 2004, she presented a videotaped tribute to her longtime friend and ally. On October 13, 2005, she celebrated her eightieth birthday at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Hyde Park in the company of dignitaries such as Queen Elizabeth II and Thatcher’s former foreign minister, Sir Geoffrey Howe. After suffering from dementia in her later years, Thatcher died of a stroke on April 8, 2013, in London.

Significance

Thatcher brought tremendous change to Britain during her term of office. In 1979, Britain, on the verge of economic ruin, had two years earlier sought a bailout loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). After Thatcher’s term began, the economy became much stronger. Her policy of cutting back on inefficient industries and attacking inflation with tight money and reduced government spending is credited by some as helping to lead Britain’s economy to become the fastest-growing economy in the European Community.

Many consider Thatcher’s success to be rooted in her appeal to the traditional middle-class values of hard work, self-reliance, thrift, and a commonsense approach to finances. These values are often considered to be deeply ingrained in the British character, contributing to her popularity among some segments of the population. Her insistence that Britain was a great world power also struck a responsive chord in the minds of many British people as pride in their nation was restored. She also displayed a fierce determination and enormous leadership talents.

Others consider Thatcher differently. Critics argued that her programs helped only the middle and upper classes while promoting greedy self-interest, and they faulted her for spending cuts in education, housing, and health care. Thatcher’s changes, although positive for some, did lead to unemployment and reduced social services. Some analysts critiqued her emphasis of the financial sector at the expense of manufacturing. Feminists also criticized her for her lack of action on the concerns of women and on women’s rights. To her critics she truly was the Iron Lady, as she had been dubbed by the Soviet press.

Thatcher’s personal and professional qualities were important in her rise to power, but good fortune and timing also played a role. The formation of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) in 1981 and its alliance with the Liberal Party divided the Labour Party. The Conservatives failed to win 50 percent of the vote in three successive elections. The Falklands War also helped Thatcher, as did the North Sea oil boom. However, more important to her legacy is that she was one of a line of successful leaders in history who took advantage of good fortune.

Thatcher and her controversial policies were common themes in popular culture during her time in office, and she remained a prominent figure in British culture long after she stepped down. Though frequently a subject of satire in the media, Thatcher was portrayed in a more nuanced manner as well, including in the 2011 film The Iron Lady.

Bibliography

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Bruce-Gardyne, Jock. Mrs. Thatcher’s First Administration: The Prophets Confounded. New York: St. Martin’s, 1984. Print.

Burton, John. “Privatization: The Thatcher Case.” Managerial and Decision Economics 8 (March, 1987): 21–29. Print.

Campbell, John. Margaret Thatcher: The Grocer’s Daughter. Vol. 1. London: Cape, 2000. Print.

Campbell, John. Margaret Thatcher: The Iron Lady. Vol. 2. London: Cape, 2003. Print.

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Cooper, James. Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan: A Very Political Special Relationship. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2012. Digital file.

Gardiner, Nile, and Steve Thompson. Margaret Thatcher on Leadership: Lessons for American Conservatives Today. Washington, DC: Regnery, 2013. Digital file.

Garfinkel, Bernard. Margaret Thatcher. New York: Chelsea, 1985. Print.

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Manwaring, Tony, and Nick Sigler, eds. Breaking the Nation: A Guide to Thatcher’s Britain. London: Pluto, 1985. Print.

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Veldman, Meredith. Margaret Thatcher: Shaping the New Conservatism. New York: Oxford UP, 2015. Print.