Muhammad

The Prophet, founder of Islam

• Born: c. 570
• Birthplace: Mecca, Arabia (now in Saudi Arabia)
• Died: June 8, 0632
• Place of death: Medina, Arabia (now in Saudi Arabia)

Through Muḥammad, the Qur՚ān was recited and propagated as the revealed word of Allāh, and through his teachings and leadership, Islam was established as a religious system and a way of life that has possessed extraordinary influence and persuasive powers in many parts of the world.

Early Life

Muḥammad (moh-HAH-mehd) was the only child of his parents’ marriage. His father, ՙAbd Allāh ibn ՙAbd al-MutŃtŃalib, from the tribe of Quraysh, was a merchant who transported goods on camel caravans along routes into Syria and Palestine. The boy’s mother, Āminah bint Wahb, was from another clan of the same tribe. Muḥammad was probably born in the city of Mecca, which at that time was important as a commercial outpost as well as a religious center. At about that time, or shortly thereafter, his father died. The family’s means were so modest, according to one account, that apart from personal possessions they were left with little more than five camels and a few sheep. Muḥammad’s mother died when he was about six years old; he was then reared in turn by a grandfather and an uncle.

Relatively little is known with certainty about his early years. It would seem that for quite some time, he lived in relative poverty. It is probable, however, that his intelligence and tact gained some recognition for him among local traders. When he was about twenty-five, he married Khadīja (c. 554-619), a wealthy widow with several children. According to tradition, though she was about fifteen years older than he, four daughters were born to them, as well as sons who died in early childhood. Throughout their life together, he was devoted to her.

Muḥammad was subject to periods of introspection and abstraction, and at times he would meditate alone among the hills and caves north of Mecca. His own recollections and the verses recorded as the holy writ of Islam furnished an account of the divine inspiration that he maintained had appointed his destiny for him. Probably during the year 610, he received some definite indications of the mission he was to assume.

One day, Muḥammad heard a voice from on high declare that he was the messenger of Allāh. Subsequent revelations seemed to confirm this calling. Further manifestations appeared, sometimes in the form of visions, and as forms could be discerned more clearly, Muḥammad came to believe that the powerful being appearing to him was the archangel Gabriel (Jibril). An encounter that took place on what was later called “the night of destiny” began with the mighty spirit calling on him to recite; inquiring about what he should recite, Muḥammad struggled three times with the great being before uttering the lines that would be placed at the very beginning of the Qur՚ān.

By this time, because of the intensity of his mystical experiences, Muḥammad determined to consult others. He confided in his wife, and she referred him to one of her cousins, an elderly religious scholar; he suggested that Muḥammad had received guidance of the sort that had been instrumental in the development of Judaism and Christianity. Other revelations, at times accompanied by images of an angel, seemed to confirm further Muḥammad’s growing conviction that he had been chosen to convey Allāh’s tidings to the world. Increasingly, he was given to recitations that would eventually be incorporated in the Qur՚ān (though not always in chronological sequence). As the means of transmission seemingly became more regular and certain, Muḥammad also felt moved to convey his message to those around him.

At that time, several different gods and goddesses were worshiped in Arabia; one of them resembled the Allāh of Muḥammad’s prophecies. In Mecca, a celebrated black stone shrine, known from its shape as the Kabah, or Cube, served as the centerpiece for religious practices. In the beginning, there were relatively few converts to Muḥammad’s message that there was only one God, who would not countenance idolatry. Khadīja and others in the Prophet’s household were the first to accept the new faith; also prominent among the early Muslims was Abū Bakr , a moderately successful local merchant whose dauntless loyalty and resolute good sense were to prove invaluable in many ways.

Others who accepted Islam included some younger members of influential clans, men from outlying families or tribes, and former slaves. Most local people, however, preferred to remain with their ancestral beliefs; some of them claimed that Muḥammad was mad or possessed by spirits. Wealthy citizens were no doubt put off by his statements condemning distinctions of riches and poverty.

In about 615, some Muslims emigrated for a time to Abyssinia (now Ethiopia), in the hope that there they might find a more congenial reception. It was probably during this period that Muḥammad delivered some of the ringing denunciations of unbelief that were subsequently recorded in the Qur՚ān; graphic descriptions of Hell probably were meant to illustrate the fate of those who rejected him. Still, though there was little overt persecution beyond throwing stones and casting thorns in the Prophet’s path, the Meccans by and large rejected the new religion; indeed, for some time a boycott was organized against the small Muslim community. Muḥammad’s fortunes as a religious leader seemed to have reached their nadir; in 619, he was further saddened by the death of his wife and of his uncle Abū Ṭālib, who had encouraged his efforts without actually embracing Islam.

Life’s Work

Somewhat more favorable prospects presented themselves in other Arabian cities. Although little progress was made in Taif, southeast of Mecca, Muḥammad had reason to believe that Medina (Yathrib) would prove more receptive to his preaching. In 622, the celebrated emigration or departure (hijrah) took place: Muḥammad and many of his disciples removed themselves to Medina. The year 622 later was adopted as the beginning of the Muslim calendar. In Medina, Muḥammad confronted many problems essentially of a political order; a compact he reached with residents of the city recognized the interests of the Muslims as a separate group and established that his authority as the messenger of Allāh would be binding for the settlement of their disputes.

Military expeditions also became important to the new Muslim polity, and raids were mounted to harass Meccan caravans. The first outbreak of major violence, which occurred near Nakhlah, between Mecca and Taif, took place during a month that Arabian tradition had held holy. The Muslims insisted that combating unbelief served a greater good than the observance of time-honored truce periods. In 624, in a major battle fought at Badr, southwest of Medina, a party of Muslims defeated a larger force of their opponents; relatively few men were killed on either side, but the Meccans lost their commander.

Engagements of this sort undoubtedly had the effect of strengthening solidarity and morale among the various groups that had embraced Islam. The doctrine of jihad , or war for the faith, arose during this period. Some setbacks were encountered; north of Medina, at Uhud, in March, 625, the Prophet for the first time took part personally in combat; he was struck by a stone and wounded, and he may have killed one of his opponents. The Muslims were compelled to retreat, however, when their adversaries launched a successful flank attack. Ḥamzah ibn ՙAbd al-MutŃtŃalib, the Prophet’s uncle, was acclaimed a martyr for the faith after he was killed by an enemy’s javelin. Their pagan opponents attempted to follow up their victory with a full-scale expedition against Medina. Although they raised an army of about ten thousand men, they were unable to penetrate the entrenchments Muḥammad’s forces had dug about the city. In the spring of 627, after some desultory skirmishes, the Meccans abandoned their siege, leaving the Muslims victorious in the Campaign of the Ditch (al-Khandaq).

Some portions of the Qur՚ān were revealed during Muḥammad’s sojourn in Medina; many of these verses are notable for their striking imagery and resonant tone. It would appear that the Prophet was acutely sensitive to comments from others about the literary quality of his teachings. In keeping with Muḥammad’s position within the Muslim community, many passages established legislative norms that were taken as binding on believers. Sumptuary regulations and the prohibition of wine were among the obligations imposed on the faithful. For those who were able, the giving of alms was also enjoined. Many matters affecting marriage and divorce were also subject to religious law; it is possible that the permission for men to take four wives derived from concern for women who had been left widowed after the Battle of Uhud.

The eschatology formulated by Muḥammad bore some resemblance to those of previous faiths but was distinctive and original on many points. The Last Judgment, which is to come suddenly and in the midst of cosmic upheaval, is vividly depicted in some of the earlier revelations. The Resurrection, when the living are to be spirited away while the dead will be summoned from their graves, is to be followed by a reckoning when the book of each person’s life is opened. Some later lines supply detailed descriptions of the afterlife; others speak of the presence of angels. The Prophet warned against the intrigues of Satan (Shaytan, or Iblis), who was portrayed as an angel who fell from grace and ever after has been devising temptations to lure people from the straight path; he has lesser servants at his beck and call, who also lay traps for unwary mortals.

Clearly, many of Muḥammad’s teachings reflect Jewish and Christian doctrines; indeed, some later verses make reference to Moses, King David, and Jesus, all of whom were venerated as predecessors of the Prophet. It seems likely, however, that Muḥammad’s knowledge of other scriptures was incomplete; some of his ideas may have been suggested by oral accounts that had circulated in various forms. In other ways, Islamic beliefs diverged from those of Judaism and Christianity. Muḥammad rebuffed requests that he provide signs or other evidence of miraculous powers; he maintained that Allāh, who alone could act in such ways, would do so only when it accorded with the divine purpose. Muḥammad’s criticisms of Christian beliefs later came to figure prominently in Muslim polemics; he asserted, for example, that the doctrine of the Trinity was not compatible with faith in one God. According to the Qur՚ān, Muḥammad was the last and the seal of the prophets; his teachings were universal in character and were meant to be received by all humankind. (In Medina, Muḥammad was dismayed and perplexed when local Jewish groups rejected the message of Islam; some of them were expelled from the area and, when it was feared that others might assist Meccan forces, in 627, the tribe of Banū Qurayza was summarily eliminated.)

Surviving descriptions of Muḥammad’s manner and bearing suggest that he was a man of impressive dignity. He had a broad and powerful torso, thick black hair, a long beard, and a hooked nose. His eyes were very dark and piercing. Although he had a pleasant smile, he tended to laugh infrequently. It is said that he retained a youthful appearance even in his later years. His personal life became a matter for subsequent speculation, and his character and motivations were questioned, but it seems likely that some of the criticisms concerning his relations with women were misplaced. By the end of his life, Muḥammad had nine wives. Among them wereՙĀ՚ishah bint Abū Bakr, who reputedly was his favorite, and Zaynab bint Jaḥsh, a maternal cousin; a concubine, Mariyah the Copt, was the mother of the only child born to the Prophet’s household during these later years, but their son, Ibrāhīm, died during his second year. Some later critics charged that the Prophet was driven by sensual impulses, but there is little evidence to support this accusation. It would appear that some of Muḥammad’s marriages were undertaken in order to forge alliances with key clan leaders. Jealousy did sometimes erupt among Muḥammad’s wives, despite his practice of staying one day with each of them in turn.

After the Muslims had successfully withstood the siege of Medina, Muḥammad seized on certain diplomatic stratagems that displayed political foresight and adroit statesmanship. Outlying tribes, impressed by the stalwart example of the Islamic community in Medina, began to accept the new faith. In March, 628, Muḥammad embarked on what ostensibly was a pilgrimage to Mecca. On the way, at al-Hudaybiya, he and his men halted to negotiate a truce whose terms seemed quite unfavorable to the Muslims. This apparent setback, however, produced a period of peace that allowed the forces of Islam to gather their strength. During the next year, when, in keeping with this agreement, about two thousand Muslims entered the city as pilgrims, it would appear that the Meccans were daunted by their numbers; certain key Meccans even converted. In November, 629, a quarrel that arose over one of the tribes that had aligned itself with the Muslims provided an occasion for Muḥammad to abrogate the peace of al-Hudaybiya; an army of ten thousand men was assembled, and in January, 630, they marched into Mecca, which yielded after very little fighting. The Prophet solemnly proclaimed an end to the practice of idolatry; a general amnesty was also announced. Excepting four men who were sentenced to death, even those regarded as criminals or long-standing enemies were pardoned.

Shortly thereafter, the most dangerous Bedouin tribe that still opposed the Prophet in the Hejaz was vanquished at Hunayn, to the east of Mecca. The Arab Islamic state had already become a force to be reckoned with; Muḥammad had sent embassies to the Byzantine emperor, the king of Persia, and other heads of state. Although for the time being efforts to expand beyond Arabia met with little success, the Muslims held sway in the Prophet’s homeland. Muḥammad spent most of the time that remained to him in Medina; in March, 632, he made his last pilgrimage to Mecca, where he uttered what has been regarded as his final revelation. On his return, he was affected briefly by an illness; without designating a successor he died, apparently rather peacefully, in Medina on June 8, 632.

Significance

Despite its small and inauspicious beginnings, the faith Muḥammad taught eventually came to be accepted in many parts of the world. In the unsettled conditions that prevailed during the early seventh century, Arabia was ready to receive the teachings of Islam; the Muslim faith, with its austere monotheism and its specific moral guidelines, answered clear spiritual needs. Islam provided a way of life that applied to many spheres of human activity, for Muḥammad’s prophecy extended to legislation and guidance of the community as well as to strictly spiritual matters.

Some commentators, particularly from Western countries, have given particular attention to Muḥammad’s military endeavors and his many marriages, but the traits that recommended him most to the faithful were his sincerity, his simple eloquence, and his skill and insight in attending to his community. Also striking was the essential humility that, in keeping with his faith in one God, restrained him from claiming that he was more than the messenger by whom Allāh’s word was made known. While by some standards his life fell short of the perfection to which religious leaders are called, Muḥammad’s intense devotion and masterful leadership set a compelling example by which his essential aims were realized. In so doing, he secured wide acceptance of the Allāh of his revelations.

Bibliography

Andrae, Tor. Moḥammed: The Man and His Faith. Translated by Theophil Menzel. 1936. Reprint. Salem, N.H.: Ayer, 1989. A brief but informative study that discusses the life and character of the Prophet. Summarizes religious revelations and teachings and examines the sources of his theological inspiration. Concludes with a sympathetic evaluation of Muḥammad’s personality in relation to comparable figures from other religions.

Cook, Michael. Muḥammad. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. This brief survey considers the various problems of Islamic doctrine that arose during the Prophet’s lifetime. Bibliography.

Glubb, John Bagot. The Life and Times of Muḥammad. 1970. Reprint. New York: Cooper Square Press, 2001. This sympathetic work by a British writer, who for some time was the commander of the Arab Legion in Jordan, is of interest partly for its depiction of Arabian life and customs and for its reconstruction of desert battles. Bibliography, index.

Green, Joey, ed. Jesus and Muḥammad: The Parallel Sayings. Berkeley, Calif.: Seastone, 2003. This text presents quotations from the New Testament and the Qur՚ān that demonstrate similarities between Christianity’s core values and the tenets of Islam. Topics include love, God, jihad, faith, wisdom, law, and charity. Bibliography and an index of quotations.

Haykal, Muḥammad Husayn. The Life of Muḥammad. Translated by Ismail Ragi A. al-Faruqi. Indianapolis, Ind.: North American Trust, 1976. An Islamic treatment of the Prophet that provides a full and detailed account of Muḥammad’s work. Bibliography, index.

Ibn Hisham, ՙAbd al-Malik. The Life of Muḥammad: A Translation of Isḥāq’s “Sirat rasul Allāh.” Translated by Alfred Guillaume. London: Oxford University Press, 1955. This version of a biographical chronicle from a traditionist of the second century after Muḥammad shows how the Prophet’s life was perceived by early Muslims. Highly regarded by scholars.

Ibn Kathīr. The Life of the Prophet Muḥammad. Translated by Trevor Le Gassick. Reading, England: Garnet, 2000. Translation of the classic text al-Sira al-Nabawiyya by a prominent fourteenth century Islamic theologian and historian. Events ordered chronologically and drawn from contemporary sources. Part of the Great Books of Islamic Civilization series. Bibliography, index.

Khan, Muḥammad Zafrulla. Muḥammad: Seal of the Prophets. Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980. A full and sympathetic study. The interpretation advanced here, that Muḥammad was an exemplar of religious piety, may have its roots in the author’s affiliation with the Ahmadiyah movement, which has heterodox missionary inclinations. Bibliography, index.

Rogerson, Barnaby. The Prophet Muḥammad: A Biography. London: Little, Brown, 2003. Presents a biographical account of the life of Muḥammad. Chapters discuss his early life, the cities of Mecca and Medina, Arabia, his first revelations, and more. Bibliography, index.

Wadud, Amina. Qur՚ān and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman’s Perspective. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. The author’s unique reading of the Qur՚ān sheds light on the role of women and relations between women and men presented in the book of Islam. Chapters explore the biases of earlier interpretations and its effects on tradition and Islamic culture and society, equality between men and women, and more. Includes a list of women mentioned in the Qur՚ān, a bibliography, and an index.

Watt, W. Montgomery. Muḥammad at Mecca. 1953. Reprint. New York: Clarendon Press, 1972. Explores Muḥammad’s early years, his first revelations, and the origins of the Qur՚ān. Bibliography.

Watt, W. Montgomery. Muḥammad at Medina. 1956. Reprint. New York: Clarendon Press, 1981. The author discusses the political and theological implications that accompanied the rise of Islam. Bibliographical footnotes, index.