Saint Ambrose

Milanese bishop

• Born: 339
• Birthplace: Augusta Treverorum, Gaul (now Trier, Germany)
• Died: April 4, 0397
• Place of death: Milan (now in Italy)

By the practical application of Roman virtue and Christian ethics, Ambrose established the Nicene Creed as the orthodox doctrine of Christianity and asserted the spiritual authority of the church over the state.

Early Life

Ambrose (AM-brohz) is a good example of why Christianity replaced traditional paganism as the official religion of the Roman Empire. The son of one of the highest civilian officials in the Roman hierarchy, he was educated in the best Roman tradition and raised in a devout Christian family. When Ambrose was born, his father, Aurelius Ambrosius, was praetorian prefect of Gaul and could offer Ambrose every advantage of Roman life. Ambrosius died when Ambrose was still an infant, and thus it was left to his mother, whose name is unknown, to raise the young Ambrose, his sister Marcellina, and his brother Satyrus. Almost immediately the family returned to Rome. Little is known about this time in Rome except that Ambrose and his brother attended the usual Roman schools, where they learned grammar and composition by reading and reciting the works of the Roman masters. Ambrose stated that he most enjoyed Cicero, Vergil, and Sallust. Later both brothers studied rhetoric and prepared for careers in the civil service.

Christianity seems to have been established within the family well before Ambrose’s birth. The family boasted of a holy ancestor, a great-aunt Soteris, who had suffered martyrdom in 304 c.e. during the persecutions propagated by Diocletian. The depth of this belief first appeared on the feast of the Epiphany in 353, when Marcellina, in the presence of Pope Liberius, dedicated her virginity to God and committed herself to the practice of an ascetic life. Afterward, Marcellina continued to live in her mother’s house and with her mother formed the core for one of the first groups of patrician women who renounced the world and gave themselves up to Christian study, prayer, and good works.

The effects of a Christian life were not immediately obvious in Ambrose’s life. In 365, Emperor Valentinian I appointed him and Satyrus legal advocates in Sirmium at the tribunal of the praetorian prefect of Italy, Africa, and Illyria. Both men impressed successive prefects with their eloquence and intelligence and advanced quickly. As a result, in 370 both received provincial governorships. Ambrose became governor of Aemilia-Liguria in northern Italy. Because the capital of the province was at Milan, then the principal seat of the Imperial government in the West, Ambrose became known to the most important people of the time. An anecdote in the biography written after his death by his secretary Paulinus indicates how popular a governor he was. In 373, when Bishop Auxentius died, governor Ambrose, in an effort to keep the peace, addressed the bickering factions of orthodox and Arian Christians. From the crowd a child’s voice was heard to call “Bishop Ambrose.” It was enough to start a public outcry for his consecration as the next bishop of Milan.

Life’s Work

Ambrose’s whole career as bishop of Milan was directed toward defending what he called the “cause of God,” which included the advocacy of an orthodox Christian doctrine, the defining of Church authority, and the disestablishment of pagan state religion. From the time of his consecration, Bishop Ambrose had made known his opposition to the Arian heresy, but he was unable to influence the Emperor Valentinian I. To maintain public order, Valentinian followed a policy of neutrality toward the different religions of the Empire, even though he himself was a Christian. Ambrose’s first successes were in shaping the attitudes and programs of the Emperor Gratian. His strongly worded statement against Arianism, De fide (380), used extensive scriptural quotations to present the argument that orthodoxy provided a physical protection for the Empire. Ambrose pointed out that the Goths had devastated the Arian provinces of the Balkan Peninsula but that the provinces defended by the orthodox Gratian were spared. Convinced by the argument, Gratian enlisted Ambrose as an adviser and teacher. It was probably Ambrose who inspired Gratian’s firm stands against heresy and his decree for the removal of the Altar of Victory from the senate house in 382. The Altar of Victory to the people of the time was a symbol of the ancient association of paganism and the Roman government.

Ambrose’s relationship with Gratian proved his powers of persuasion, but it established no real authority for the Church. Since the time of Constantine the Great, emperors had freely interfered in church affairs as a legitimate function of their office. After Gratian’s death in 383, Justina and her son Valentinian II represented the Imperial family in Milan. They favored Arian doctrine. At the beginning of 385 Justina ordered Ambrose to assign a church for Arian worship. Ambrose refused, saying that sacred things were not subject to the power of the emperor. He was unwilling to allow the gains made against heresy to be lost as the result of changes in the religious preference of the civil authorities. For more than a year, Ambrose resisted the queen mother’s demands and the pressures of the emperor. At times he physically obstructed troops trying to occupy Christian churches. In the end he was successful for several reasons. First, Ambrose’s popularity ensured broad public support for his stand. Second, while excavating for the construction of the new basilica, workmen discovered the skeletal remains of two large men. Ambrose interpreted the finds as the remains of the martyred saints Gervasius and Protasius, a sign from Heaven on the correctness of his position. The emperor found it difficult to combat a sign from God. Third, in 387 the usurper Magnus Maximus moved his armies toward Milan, and Valentinian and Justina fled. Circumstances left Ambrose in control in Milan.

The prestige that Ambrose achieved as the result of his successful resistance to Justina and Valentinian was the basis for future success in asserting church authority over the authority of the soldier emperor Theodosius the Great. In late 388, at the instigation of the local bishop, a mob looted and burned a Jewish synagogue at Callinicum in Syria. The news of the event reached Milan in a report that also told of monks destroying a chapel of a Gnostic sect. In the interest of public order, Theodosius ordered reparations. In particular he ordered the bishop to rebuild the synagogue at his own expense and to see to the restoration of the stolen articles. The offending monks were to be punished. Ambrose was appalled. In a letter written to Theodosius, he took the position that if the bishop rebuilt the place of worship for the enemies of Christ he would be guilty of apostasy. It would be better for the bishop to refuse and become a martyr for not obeying the emperor. Ambrose’s position was that the maintenance of civil law is secondary to religious interests. Even Theodosius’s amended order that the state rebuild the synagogue would not satisfy Ambrose. A bold sermon, delivered while Theodosius was in the congregation, demanded that there be no reparation of any kind. In the past, Ambrose stated, gross breaches of public order by pagans and Jews against Christians had gone unpunished. He had in mind the violence that had occurred during the reign of the Emperor Julian. It was perverse reasoning, but it was effective. Theodosius yielded, not because he accepted Ambrose’s argument but because politically he could not afford to alienate the popular bishop. In the dispute with Justina, Ambrose had proved his ability to arouse public sentiment. Unfortunately, Ambrose’s stance provided a justification for anti-Semitism throughout the Middle Ages.

This public humiliation of the emperor had a chilling effect on Ambrose’s relationship with the Imperial court, and for a time Theodosius preferred the advice of others. One result was Theodosius’s cruel response to a violent outburst by the citizens of the Greek city of Thessalonica. During the summer of 390, the Thessalonians became upset over the quartering of barbarian troops within the city. When Botheric, the barbarian commandant, ordered the imprisonment of a popular charioteer and refused to allow him to participate in the upcoming public games, riots erupted. An angry mob savagely attacked Botheric, killed him, and dragged his body through the streets. Theodosius was furious and yielded to counsel that he punish the city. He soon repented his anger, too late to stop a general massacre. Enticed to attend a gala exhibition in the circus, the citizens filled the arena. At a signal the gates were shut and armed soldiers rushed in, attacking and killing indiscriminately anyone they found. For three hours, no distinctions were made between citizens and visitors, guilty and not guilty, young and old. In all, at least seven thousand people died.

Ambrose’s response, after a judicious delay, was to excommunicate the emperor. Tradition has it that the proclamation was made publicly and that the emperor was ordered to undergo public penance, which would have increased Theodosius’s humiliation before Ambrose. The letter, however, in which Ambrose refused the Sacraments to the emperor, is a model of tact and restraint. Ambrose acts the part of the concerned confessor and moral guardian. His position is the sanctity of divine law over a man who has sinned grievously against God and humanity. Thus, while Theodosius again had to yield to the bishop’s authority, he submitted to spiritual and not secular authority. In effect, Theodosius recognized the Church’s right to preserve the fundamental principles of religion and morality over princes and people alike.

The affair actually brought Ambrose and Theodosius closer together. Thereafter, Ambrose was Theodosius’s chief spiritual adviser and confidant. They were truly partners in establishing the Nicene ideals in the Western church. Together, they defined the Nicene Creed as the orthodox religion. Ambrose outlived Theodosius by only three years. He died on the Vigil of Easter.

Significance

Ambrose is best known for asserting the dominance of church authority over the Emperor Theodosius. Through his example, future ministers of the Gospel confidently claimed the right to judge, condemn, punish, and pardon princes. Ambrose was not motivated by any personal desire to demonstrate priestly power over the sovereign. Even in the episode of Callinicum, which was so little to his credit, he acted according to what he saw as the interests of the Church. In his mind, church and state were dominant in two separate but mutually dependent spheres. It was the function of the church to pray for the state and to act as its spiritual leader, while the state was the secular arm of society, which facilitated the spiritual purpose of the church. His confrontations with Theodosius and other secular leaders arose from the conviction that they had crossed the line separating church and state and were interfering in spiritual affairs. These became the principles that guided both civil and papal law in the Middle Ages.

This approach was a direct result of Ambrose’s Roman, Stoic upbringing. In a very practical way, he was able to use what was best of Roman values as the foundation of everyday Christian virtue. Ambrose was convinced that because of the tremendous gulf between God and humankind, the day-to-day adherence to faith was the issue of greatest importance. He was not an original thinker, preferring to use his tremendous gift for oratory as a tool for education. Concern with the details of Scripture as they applied to life situations prompted him to rely on allegory, especially in his discussions of the Old Testament. The result was a dynamic body of doctrine and a devout core of converts, the most famous of whom was Saint Augustine. Typically, as one practical way to increase the involvement of women and children in church services, Ambrose advocated a greater use of music in religious services. Although not the first to use music in the liturgy, he is considered the father of liturgical music.

Bibliography

Campenhausen, Hans von. Men Who Shaped the Western Church. Translated by Manfred Hoffman. New York: Harper and Row, 1964. A collection of short analytical biographies for seven of the best-known men in Latin Christianity. The aim of this book is to depict how personality contributed to the differences between the Greek and Latin churches. The biography of Ambrose highlights his contribution to the practical legalism of Western Christianity.

Dudden, F. Homes. The Life and Times of St. Ambrose. 2 vols. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1935. A thorough treatment of Ambrose’s life, combining biographical detail with insightful analysis and source criticism and correcting many of the mistaken ideas about Ambrose. Includes bibliography.

Gilliard, Frank D. “Senatorial Bishops in the Fourth Century.” Harvard Theological Review 77, no. 2 (1984): 153-175. In an examination of the class origins of prominent fourth century bishops, Gilliard seeks to determine if social class aided those who attained high church office, and whether that affected the conversion of the Roman aristocracy.

McLynn, Neil B. Ambrose of Milan: Church and Court in a Christian Capital. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. McLynn interprets the body of Ambrose’s actions and writings and finds the bishop’s presentation of self to be purposeful; reveals how Ambrose manipulated important events of the fourth century. Also provides insight into the complexities of the late Roman government.

Paredi, Angelo. Saint Ambrose: His Life and Times. Translated by Joseph Costelloe. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1964. A history of the period in which Ambrose lived, not a biography. Religious in its outlook, it is more accepting of the legends and less critical of the sources than are most scholarly treatments.

Paulinus. Life of St. Ambrose by Paulinus. Translated by John A. Lacy. New York: Fathers of the Church, 1952. Paulinus’s biography is the basic source for information about the life of Ambrose. Paulinus was enamored of Ambrose and considered him a saint. He retells fantastic events as truth.

Satterlee, Craig Alan. Ambrose of Milan’s Method of Mystagogical Preaching. Collegevill, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2002. An account of Saint Ambrose’s methods in initiating new Christians.