Saint Irenaeus

Roman bishop

• Born: Between 120 and 140
• Birthplace: Probably Smyrna, Asia Minor (now İzmir, Turkey)
• Died: c. 202
• Place of death: Lugdunum, Gaul (now Lyon, France)

As the first systematic theologian of the Christian church, Irenaeus laid the foundation for the development of church doctrine and effectively ended the threat that Gnosticism might substitute mysticism for faith in the resurrection of Christ.

Early Life

All that is known of the life of Saint Irenaeus (i-ree-NEE-uhs) derives from the Historia ecclesiastica (c. 300, 324 c.e.; Ancient Ecclesiastical Histories, 1576-1577; better known as Church History) of Eusebius and from occasional comments made by Irenaeus himself in his works. Because Eusebius was less interested in biography than in recording the development and growth of the Church, he offers only a few tantalizing details. Irenaeus was born sometime after 120, in or near the trading city of Smyrna on the southwestern coast of Asia Minor, which was at that time part of the Roman Empire. His parents, who were probably Greeks, were also Christians.

In the century that had passed between the crucifixion of Christ and the birth of Irenaeus, the Apostles of Jesus had spread his message throughout the Mediterranean world, and Peter and Paul, in particular, had transformed a minor Jewish sect into an established institution with churches, priests, and bishops throughout the Roman Empire. In fact, the rapid growth of the Church had frightened and angered the Roman authorities. Though most Christians tried to be good citizens of the Empire, they refused to worship the old Roman gods; as a result, they were often regarded as traitors and were frequently persecuted.

The early history of the Church is filled with heroic and miraculous tales of these martyrs. One of them was Polycarp, a renowned Christian teacher and bishop of Smyrna, who was burned at the stake in 156. As a young man, Irenaeus was apparently brought to Polycarp for instruction in the faith and was deeply influenced by him. Because Polycarp had known several of the Apostles, he was able to transmit their teaching with a personal vigor. Irenaeus’s belief that the books of the Apostles accurately present the true message of Christ probably derived from Polycarp. In his later years, Irenaeus’s memories of his old teacher were still so sharp that he could vividly describe Polycarp and the lessons he had taught. It may have been Polycarp who sent Irenaeus as a missionary to the city of Lugdunum in the Roman province of Gaul.

Life’s Work

After his arrival at Lugdunum, Irenaeus was ordained as a priest by Pothinus, the bishop, and he soon began a lifelong career of converting the pagans of southwestern Gaul to Christianity. In 161, however, the expansion of the Church was endangered by the appointment of a new Roman emperor, Marcus Aurelius. Though in many ways an admirable man, the emperor saw the Christians as a threat to the strength and unity of the Empire, and he initiated an especially cruel series of persecutions against them. In 177, it was the turn of the churches of Gaul, and it is said that the streets of Lugdunum ran with the blood of thousands of Christians who had been tortured and killed.

Fortunately, though, Irenaeus had been sent by the leaders of the Church on a mission to Pope Eleutherius at Rome, so he escaped the time of persecution. The purpose of the mission is somewhat unclear: Eusebius says only that Irenaeus acted as a mediator in a dispute over an issue related to Montanism, which was one of many heresies in the early Church. Montanists, who took their name from their leader, Montanus, believed that they were under the direct influence of the Holy Spirit, and their worship services, like those of the nineteenth century Shakers, were often characterized by emotional outbursts and “speaking in tongues.” Some modern authorities have stated that the pope had become a Montanist and that Irenaeus tried to persuade Eleutherius to return to a more orthodox view. Others assert the opposite—that Irenaeus tried to convince the pope not to excommunicate the Montanists.

In any case, while in Rome, Irenaeus saw that heresies were threatening to tear the Church apart, and he determined that he would do everything he could to eliminate them. The problem of heresies had arisen, Irenaeus believed, because the Church had as yet no established body of doctrine accepted by all Christian churches. In the modern world, many Christian denominations coexist peacefully and are drawing closer together through the ecumenical movement. This degree of unity has been possible only because Christians of nearly every denomination acknowledge and share certain fundamental beliefs.

In the early days of Christianity, however, these common beliefs had not yet been clearly or systematically articulated. Without an authoritative body of doctrine, Christians could be led astray by religious leaders who claimed to have a new revelation or a superior interpretation of the Gospels. While Montanism was a relatively minor, and even tolerable, deviation from orthodoxy, Christianity itself was but one of several competitors in a great theological contest occurring throughout the Roman world. Among the others were the pagan religions, such as that of the old Roman state gods. Despite attacks from Roman Imperial authorities, Christianity had been making steady advances against these religions, because they offered no vision of eternal life. A much more dangerous threat to the Church came from the various sects called Gnostics.

Gnosticism comprised a vague system of ideas about the nature of the universe; these ideas predated Christianity and had spread throughout the Mediterranean world by the second century after Christ. A central feature of this system was a belief in the salvation of the soul through the acquisition of a gnosis, or secret knowledge. This mystical revelation of the origins and fate of the cosmos would be communicated by a “divine redeemer” to an elite group of individuals ready to receive it. Gnosticism had become popular, particularly among intellectuals, through a gradual process of absorbing elements of other religions as well as some aspects of Greek philosophy.

When Gnostics encountered Christianity, they attempted to integrate it into their system by identifying Christ as the “divine redeemer” and by accepting only those portions of the Scriptures that agreed with their views. In addition, they claimed to possess secret books that augmented and improved on the Christian message. Often, Gnostics even called themselves Christians. However, Christianity and Gnosticism were fundamentally opposed: For the Christian, salvation was achieved through faith in Christ’s resurrection and cooperation with the will of God, rather than by gaining some body of esoteric knowledge.

Irenaeus had become especially distressed about Gnosticism during his visit to Rome because one of his childhood friends and fellow students of Polycarp, Florinus, had fallen under the influence of a Gnostic leader. Florinus had become a Roman consul and was thus in a position to do great harm to the Christians of the city. Irenaeus wrote his old friend a long letter explaining some of his objections to Gnosticism and reminding Florinus that Polycarp had taught them to adhere only to the teachings of the Church established by the Apostles. Unfortunately, Irenaeus was unsuccessful in dissuading Florinus from leaving the Church.

In 178, after returning to Lugdunum, Irenaeus was elected to replace Pothinus, who had been martyred, as bishop. Irenaeus also continued his missionary work. In 190, he again acted as a mediator for a new pope, Victor I, in a dispute between the churches of the eastern and western parts of the Empire over the determination of the proper date for the celebration of Easter. Irenaeus suggested that such differences were not particularly important and, in any case, would probably disappear eventually. Eusebius notes that through his efforts, Irenaeus certainly lived up to his name, which means “peacemaker.”

The constant appearance of such controversies reinforced Irenaeus’s belief that the Church must have a consistent body of doctrine. Throughout his career, the problem of heresy, and especially Gnosticism, continued to weigh on his mind. As a result, he wrote a large number of letters, treatises, and books, all building toward a clear exposition of orthodox Christianity and a refutation of heresy. Though most of these works have been lost, several Latin translations of Irenaeus’s most important treatise, which was originally written in Greek, have been preserved. Elenchou kai anatropes is most commonly known by its Latin title, Adversus haereses (c. 180 c.e.; Against Heresies, 1868). Irenaeus began the work as a response to a request from a friend for information, but he continued to expand on his ideas during a period of several years. It was finally completed by about 190.

Against Heresies is the most important exposition of Christian theology prior to the Council of Nicaea in 325. As the Greek title implies, it is both a detailed discussion of the doctrines and history of Gnosticism and a rigorous refutation of Gnostic theory. In the first section, Irenaeus demonstrates the inconsistencies and lack of logical coherence of Gnostic belief. The more important portion of the book, however, contains, in essence, the first complete and systematic articulation of Christian theology. This system is relatively familiar to every educated Christian, for it is, in essence, still the basis of Christian belief: There is only one God, of which Christ as the Son is a part. God created humanity in his image; yet, through the sin of disobedience, humanity fell away from God into the clutches of Satan, an angel who had been envious of humanity. God therefore sent His Son so that humanity might be saved from damnation and ultimately rejoin God. Through the Holy Spirit, people are drawn into Christ’s victory over Satan and can ultimately attain salvation.

To Irenaeus, the biblical tradition is the only source of faith; no additional gnosis is necessary, nor is it compatible with biblical truth. The Old and New Testaments form a continuous unity with a clear purpose: The Old Testament predicts the coming of Christ, whose oral teachings were written down by the Apostles to form the books of the New Testament. They, in turn, established the Church, which preserves and disseminates the pure Christian message of redemption through faith. This apostolic tradition, passed on through the succession of bishops of the Church, ensures the correct interpretation of Scripture against the perversions and distortions of the Gnostics and other heretics. Thus, Irenaeus not only refuted heresy; in doing so, he also became the first theologian to defend the Church as an institution.

It is not clear how Against Heresies became well known, yet the fairly large number of Latin manuscripts containing it, a translation in Armenian made in the third or fourth century, and numerous fragments in other languages all testify to its popularity. The fact that Eusebius reproduced sizable portions of it in the Ecclesiastical History demonstrates that by the early fourth century it had become part of the standard canon of Christian dogma. Irenaeus’s other works seem also to have been well known to the ancients, yet he himself drops out of sight after about 190. A tradition that originated in the fourth or fifth century states that Irenaeus was martyred in 202 in the general persecution orchestrated by the emperor Septimus Severus, but there is no solid evidence for this. On the other hand, no evidence contradicts the story, and it would be entirely consistent with Irenaeus’s devotion to his faith.

Significance

Irenaeus is regarded by most authorities as the most important Christian theologian of the second century as well as the founder of Catholic doctrine. Chronologically, he stands at a critical point in the history of the Church. The Apostles and their immediate disciples had founded Christian communities all over the Mediterranean world, but without any central doctrine or authority, some of these had begun to accept competing and very different theologies. The mystical-philosophical system of Gnosticism, as well as pagan religions newly arrived from the East, such as Mithraism, had begun to make inroads in Christian congregations, while Roman Imperial policy sought to wipe out Christianity. Irenaeus’s coherent expression of Christian belief and his justification of the Church as an institution provided exactly the impetus toward consolidation needed by Christians to help ensure the survival of their faith.

What was required was a concept of what “the Church” meant to Christians. In Against Heresies, Irenaeus provided such a definition. He stated, first, that the Church is guided by the “rule of faith,” a statement of belief to which all Christians subscribe, and he offered a creed that differs very little from the Apostles’ Creed used to this day. Because the creed was given by the Apostles to the Church, it expresses a tradition descended directly from Christ’s own disciples. Second, the churches were established by the Apostles themselves, who appointed their successors, the bishops. Thus, an unbroken line of succession was established that guarantees the rule of faith and guards against any notions of gnosis. If Jesus had been the “divine redeemer” of the Gnostics, surely he would have given the gnosis to his disciples, who would have passed it to their successors. Third, what the Church has instead of some secret knowledge is the Gospels of the Apostles, who were eyewitnesses to Christ’s resurrection, which itself fulfills the predictions of the Old Testament.

Because many books claimed apostolic authorship, Irenaeus made an important contribution to the determination of what exactly would constitute the New Testament by limiting the Gospels to those written by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John and using as accepted apostolic writings most of the other books now included in the New Testament. In developing this threefold definition of the Church, Irenaeus not only debunked heresy but, much more important, also provided the average Christian with dependable means through which to attain salvation: the Church, its rule of faith, and the Scriptures. According to Irenaeus, these means may be trusted because the rule of faith is the essence of apostolic teaching, because the Church has descended directly from the Apostles, and because the Scriptures were written by the Apostles. With this explanation of the sources of Christian theology, Irenaeus provided the fundamental structure of Church doctrine and ended the early period of uncontrolled Christian diversity.

Bibliography

Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, ed. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus. Vol. 1 in The Ante-Nicene Fathers. 1884. Reprint. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1994. Contains a complete English translation of Against Heresies and fragments of other works by Irenaeus. Also includes a useful introduction that explains the plan and ideas of Against Heresies and places the work in its historical context.

Eusebius. The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine. Translated by G. A. Williamson. New York: Penguin Books, 1989. Eusebius is the primary source for nearly all information on the life of Irenaeus, and the ecclesiastical history also reveals how other early Christian writers built on his work. Eusebius is an essential source for early Church history.

Hägglund, Bengt. History of Theology. Translated by Gene J. Lund. St. Louis, Mo.: Concordia, 1968. Treats the history of Christian doctrine topically, within a chronological context. While possibly difficult for a reader with no background in theological or philosophical study, Hägglund is worth the effort. Provides the clearest explanation of Irenaeus’s reasoning in Against Heresies and helps to show how it relates to that of other early theologians.

Quasten, J. The Beginnings of Patristic Literature. Vol.1 in Patrology. Westminster, Md.: Christian Classics, 1986-1992. A complete discussion of early Christian literature, including poetry and stories, in addition to theological works. Details on texts, translations, and history of editions of each work covered. Includes extensive bibliographies for each section. Contains an excellent discussion of Against Heresies and other works by Irenaeus.

Schaff, Philip. Ante-Nicene Christianity A.D. 100-325. Vol. 2 in History of the Christian Church. 3d ed. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1996. Though extremely dated in both its approach and its style, Schaff’s is perhaps the most complete history of the Church in English. This volume discusses in great detail all aspects of the growth and spread of Christianity and the development of the Church in the period covered. Contains helpful sections on early Christian heresies, including Montanism and Gnosticism, and a chapter on Irenaeus.

Tyson, Joseph B. A Study of Early Christianity. New York: Macmillan, 1984. An excellent and readable discussion of the historical and theological context in which Christianity developed, early Christian literature, the varieties of early Christianity, and the place of Jesus Christ in the development of the Christian tradition. Includes an evaluation of the contribution of Irenaeus.

Wolfson, Henry Austryn. Faith, Trinity, Incarnation. Vol. 1 in The Philosophy of the Church Fathers. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970. This massive study of the relationship of Greek philosophy and Old Testament theology to the development of Christian philosophy is extremely thorough and may therefore be more detailed than some readers need. Organized topically; thus, references to Irenaeus and his thought are scattered through several sections.