Saint Olaf

King of Norway (r. 1016-1028)

• Born: c. 995
• Birthplace: West of the Oslo fjord, Norway
• Died: July 29, 1030
• Place of death: Stiklestad, Norway

By consolidating and unifying Norway under a strong Christian monarchy, Olaf established his country’s first national government and permanently influenced the political and religious development of his land.

Early Life

Olaf Haraldsson was the great-great-grandson of King Harald Fairhair, the legendary warrior chief and first king (r. 872-930) in southeastern Norway. Olaf’s father, Harald Grenske, was a regional king in southeastern Norway and died while Olaf was still an infant. His mother, Áasta (Astrid), daughter of a prominent man in the Uplands, was remarried to Sigurd Syr, a regional king in Ringerike.

An anecdote concerning Olaf’s childhood, related by the Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson in Heimskringla (c. 1230-1235; The Heimskringla: Or, Chronicle of the Kings of Norway, 1844), reveals something of the boy’s disposition and of his attitude toward his stepfather, Sigurd, an unpretentious, mild-mannered farmer. One day King Sigurd asked Olaf to go to the stable and saddle a horse for him. Olaf returned, leading a large goat saddled with the king’s harness. Olaf not only thought the menial task unworthy of a chieftain and warrior but also repudiated the unmartial life of his stepfather by suggesting that this animal was as suitable for a farmer-king as horses are for other riders. From an early age, Olaf showed an unswerving desire to become a warrior and demonstrated contempt for any lesser life. He was hot-tempered, imperious, and proud of his birth.

Although the Viking Age was coming to an end and Olaf himself was to be the last great Viking chief, Viking expeditions were still taking place during Olaf’s boyhood, and experience as a Viking was still considered a suitable education for a young man of the chieftain class. Thus, at age twelve and in the company of experienced men, Olaf participated in raids off the shores of the Baltic Sea, in Jutland, and in Frisia. From age fourteen to nineteen, Olaf remained in Western Europe, mainly in the service of a king a fact that suggests that the Viking era was indeed passing and the era of wars between states had begun. In the service of King Ethelred II, the Unready, of England (r. 978-1013 and 1014-1016), Olaf helped to repel the Danish invasions of England from 1009 to 1014. Earlier, he had fought on the side of the Danes against the English while serving King Sweyn Forkbeard, but it is clear that Olaf’s alliance was with the English and with Ethelred, who became his protector. The influence of the English on Olaf was to prove substantial, and it was probably while in Ethelred’s service in Rouen, Normandy, that he was converted to Christianity and baptized in 1013. By the age of nineteen, Olaf had gained wide political and military training, considerable eminence as a warrior and a leader, great wealth through large tribute payments, and a knowledge of European systems of government. By the age of twenty, through skill and some luck, he had gained the throne of Norway.

It is unclear exactly when Olaf decided to conquer Norway. His political fortunes in England worsened when King Ethelred died and Canute (the Great) of Denmark (son of King Sweyn Forkbeard) established his rule in England. Olaf was very conscious of his royal ancestry and his right to the throne, however, and it is reasonable to assume he had some idea of the desirability of a unified Norwegian kingdom. Olaf’s namesake and kinsman, King Olaf I (r. 995-1000) had briefly unified the country and had attempted through hardhanded methods to impose Christianity on the land, but after his death in the Battle of Svolder in 1000, rule of Norway passed to Erik and Sweyn, the earls of Lade, in part as representatives of the Danish and Swedish crowns. The unity and independence of Norway had thus been lost, and much of the country had reverted to paganism.

In 1015, Olaf and 120 followers set sail for Norway, not in Viking warships but in two merchant vessels. Olaf clearly expected to win the throne with the help of forces raised within the country itself. In Norway, there were many regional kings (such as Olaf’s stepfather), each ruling his own little “province.” They owed allegiance to a foreign crown and paid tribute, but they were allowed to run their own domestic affairs as they saw fit. The arbitrariness of their rule and the growing differences in wealth and distinction among their subjects were grievances that Olaf was able to exploit. Promising freedom from the tyranny and exactions of local kings, Olaf won the support of the yeoman. He used the prestige of his ancestry and the wealth he had acquired to win many others to his side. He manipulated national sentiment against the Danish and Swedish overlords to lead a rebellion. Finally, he employed his military proficiency and won a decisive naval battle against Earl Sweyn and established himself as King Olaf II.

Life’s Work

Olaf II is remembered as the first effective king of all Norway, a great lawgiver, a zealous Christian missionary, and eventually Norway’s patron saint. Certainly there is little in Olaf’s early life to suggest that he would become a national saint. Neither his career as ruthless Viking warrior nor his character hints of the saintly. Such varying descriptions of Olaf exist that it is difficult to discern his true nature. One physical characteristic, however, is clear from his nickname, which was variously Olaf the Big, Olaf the Stout, and, as one of his enemies called him, Olaf the Fat. Although he was a large man and possibly inclined toward corpulence, his swiftness and agility as a warrior belies the stereotype, and Snorri records that he was capable of great asceticism. In some verses supposedly written by Olaf, he accuses himself of being too susceptible to the charms of women. Icelandic poets as late as the fifteenth century allude to his many amours, one of whom produced an illegitimate son, Magnús, who succeeded his father as king. Still, his life also gives evidence of the gradual subduing of paganism, both within Norway and within himself.

Some modern historians doubt that Olaf was as devout a Christian as medieval historians stated in their writings, which were somewhat hagiographic in tone. Olaf’s devotion to Christianity undoubtedly had practical as well as spiritual motivations. Norway had been Christian in name since the time of Olaf I, but following his death a pagan reaction set in. Olaf, while in England, possibly perceived that national unity through an established church was a politically astute strategy. He undoubtedly intended to establish a state church similar to what he had observed in England, for he brought numerous bishops and priests from England. Certainly Christianity could not be established without law and permanent organization. Olaf abolished the system of petty kings and established the authority of priests to administer the many churches he had built throughout Norway and to regulate the lives of the people according to fundamental Christian principles. The Church was given authority to regulate marriages, fasts, and feast days, and to abolish pagan practices. Many of the laws in the Kristenret (the name given to Saint Olaf’s code of laws) appeared revolutionary to the heathen, for it stated that parents no longer had the right to rid themselves of unwanted children through exposure; that a man would be permitted only one wife, to whom he must be faithful; and that the worship of house gods was forbidden. Other ideas, such as the Sabbath as a holy day of rest even for thralls, or the concept of a fast day even for those who could afford to eat and drink abundantly, were also disturbing and viewed by many pagans as unwarranted intrusions into private life. Thus, many of Olaf’s laws were met with fierce resistance, and accordingly, Olaf, despite his desire to treat his people according to principles of mercy and peace, used increasingly harsh methods to enforce the code of laws. He mutilated obdurate heathens and deprived them of their property, and during the last phase of his reign he resorted to burning villages and executing men. Yet Olaf was also capable of great restraint and even of magnanimity in dealing with his enemies, and he was known for his evenhanded treatment of all people, in spite of rank.

Olaf reigned for twelve relatively peaceful years, during which time he established the first national government in Norway and continued his systematic efforts to establish Christianity throughout the land, particularly in the north and in the interior, where resistance was greatest. A foreign war, however, brought about his downfall.

King Canute, who ruled both England and Denmark, began a plan to reclaim Norway. He sent money and gifts to the deposed petty kings and promised to restore their freedom and authority, which Olaf had taken away. Through his emissaries, he also agitated the many individuals who resented the new faith that had been thrust on them and all those who found Olaf’s strict rule to be too harsh, as well as those who hoped to gain greater independence under a more distant king. Realizing that an erosion of support for him was taking place among his people, Olaf entered into an alliance with the Swedish king, and together they made a precipitous, ill-conceived attack on Canute in Denmark, presumably before he could attack them. The attack failed and instead initiated Canute’s conquest of Norway in 1028. Olaf, knowing he had been betrayed by his country folk, fled to Russia, where he was entertained by King Jaroslav and Queen Ingigerd (to whom Olaf had once been engaged). King Jaroslav offered him authority and dominions in Russia, but Olaf desired only that it might be God’s will for him to return to Norway. In 1030, he left his son Magnús at the Russian court and returned to Norway by way of Sweden. The king of Sweden supplied him with four hundred men and authorized him to call for volunteers. Olaf marched through dense forest to Norway, where other kinsmen joined him, mainly ruffians and robbers. According to some accounts, Olaf rejected all heathen volunteers who refused baptism; according to other accounts, Olaf went into battle with three thousand men, Christians on his right and heathens on his left.

King Canute appointed Kálf Árnason, Olaf’s former friend, to command the defense of Norway. The opposing armies met at Stiklestad at midday in brilliant sunshine, but after an hour the sky turned red, the sun was obscured, and the battlefield became dark as night. Olaf’s army, greatly outnumbered, fought on bravely, but Olaf was wounded. He was leaning against a boulder and calling on God for help when he received his deathblow, probably from Kálf Árnason. In addition to an eclipse of the sun, other miracles were recorded on this day within a few hours of Olaf’s death wounds were healed and sight was restored to a blind man by contact with Olaf’s blood. When Olaf’s body was exhumed a year after burial and found to be incorrupt, he was proclaimed a saint. In 1041, the Church officially declared his sainthood, and his remains were placed above the high altar of St. Clement’s Church, where many more miracles reportedly occurred. The cult of Saint Olaf spread rapidly, and miracles relating to Saint Olaf were reported in places as distant as Constantinople and the British Isles. Churches were dedicated to Saint Olaf throughout Western Europe, and a painting of him appeared in the Nativity Church in Bethlehem around 1170.

The unusual circumstances of Olaf’s death and the events that followed it help to explain how Olaf became a saint within a few years of his death. Neither Olaf’s followers nor his detractors could help but associate his death with the death of Christ on Calvary. Another factor was the increasing discontent with the rulers that Canute installed in Norway following Olaf’s defeat and death. Sweyn, son of Canute, was still a child when appointed regent, and power was therefore transferred to his tyrannical mother, Álfífa. The harsh laws, increased taxes, and precedence given to Danes in Norway (in court, the witness of one Dane was regarded as the equivalent of ten Norwegians) roused the people to fury and caused them to view Olaf as a martyr and a champion of national liberty. Ironically, Olaf’s enemies led the expedition to Russia to bring back Olaf’s ten-year-old son, Magnús, to be king. Additional factors in the reversal of opinion about Olaf II may have been the self-interest of leading aristocrats in establishing a shrine to Saint Olaf, which would attract pilgrims from many lands, and the desire of church prelates for eminence.

The most enigmatic aspect of Olaf’s sainthood remains Olaf himself. There is much disagreement and controversy about his personality and his life, especially about the way he could embody Christian principles (humility, forgiveness, and nonviolence) yet at times reveal an almost instinctive cruelty and arrogance. He was a missionary king, continuing the work of Olaf I in bringing lost souls to salvation (even against their will). He was a Viking, punitive, shrewd, and ruthless when necessary. Snorri stated that Olaf, while in exile at the Russian court, became increasingly engrossed in prayer and contemplated traveling to Jerusalem to take monastic vows. According to Snorri, Olaf relinquished all desire to rule for the sake of power and wished only to be an instrument of God’s will. A dream told him to regain the kingdom. As Olaf drew near his last battle, many signs of sanctity were seen, among them Olaf’s immersion in prayers and fasting and his selfless concern for the souls of his men.

Significance

In art, Saint Olaf is always depicted holding a battle-ax with a dragon under his foot, representing the heathendom he destroyed. Gradually, it became customary to depict a face on the dragon resembling the king’s own, suggesting that it was also Olaf’s own heathen nature that he trampled underfoot. Undoubtedly, by consolidating and strengthening the monarchy in Norway, by upholding law and order, by attempting to be both just and strict, and by promoting passage of laws consistent with Christian principles, King Olaf II was a great civilizing force in a dark time. His martyr’s death and subsequent canonization established the concept of Norway as a unified Christian nation under the rule of a single Christian monarch. Thus he is known as the “Eternal King” of Norway.

Bibliography

Fassler, Margot E., and Rebecca A. Baltzer, eds. The Divine Office in the Latin Middle Ages: Methodology and Source Studies, Regional Developments, Hagiography. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Explores the Divine Office the daily worship services other than Mass that were central to the Middle Ages and its saints and includes a chapter on Olaf’s transformation from Viking to saint. Extensive bibliography and index.

Gjerset, Knut. History of the Norwegian People. 1932. Reprint. New York: AMS Press, 1969. A complete history of Olaf’s rise and fall, and detailed accounts of the social, political, and economic conditions in the land of the time.

Larsen, Karen. A History of Norway. 1948. Reprint. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1974. A good general account of Norway’s history and one of the most readable. Provides a brief overview of Olaf’s development and one of the most sympathetic accounts of his life. Includes a brief bibliography.

McKitterick, Rosamond, ed. The New Cambridge Medieval History/Middle Ages. 7 vols. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Volume 5 examines the period of the Middle Ages from about 1198 to about 1300 and includes a section on “Scandinavia and the Baltic Frontier,” with essays discussing the region’s kingdoms and military orders. Reference made to Saint Olaf (Olav) and many contemporaries.

Roesdahl, Else. The Vikings. 2d ed. Translated by Susan M. Margeson and Kirsten Williams. New York: Penguin Books, 1998. Provides a solid, meticulous survey of Viking expansion. Includes maps, illustrations, an extensive bibliography, and index.

Snorri Sturluson. Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway. 1964. Reprint. Translated by Lee M. Hollander. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991. A history of the kings of Norway from the quasi-mythic origins of the dynasty to the year 1177 by the thirteenth century Icelandic poet. Provides the text of “Saint Olaf’s Saga” (“Oláfs saga Helga”), one of Snorri’s greatest literary achievements and a major if controversial source about Olaf II. Includes an introduction and copious notes.

Turville-Petre, Gabriel. The Heroic Age of Scandinavia. London: Hutchinson’s University Library, 1951. An introductory history of the Norsemen to the year 1030. A chapter devoted to Olaf II emphasizes that the cult and legends of Olaf II have eclipsed the historical figure. Includes a discussion of the confusion about the date of Olaf’s death (which does not coincide with the solar eclipse). Brief bibliography.

Undset, Sigrid. Saga of Saints. 1934. Reprint. Translated by E. C. Ramsden. Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1968. A chapter on Olaf offers interesting insights into the differences between pagan and Christian values and practices. An uncritical presentation of the many legends and miracles surrounding Olaf.