Thomas à Kempis

Dutch-German ecclesiastic and writer

• Born: 1379
• Birthplace: Kempen, the Rhineland (now in Germany)
• Died: August 8, 1471
• Place of death: Monastery of St. Agnietenberg, near Zwolle, Bishopric of Utrecht (now in the Netherlands)

Thomas is credited by most historians with writing The Imitation of Christ, the most important piece of devotional literature produced by the late medieval pietistic movement called the devotio moderna and one of the most influential religious works in history. Some scholars claim that this work has been more widely read than any Christian work other than the Bible.

Early Life

Thomas Hammerken of Kempen, better known as Thomas à Kempis (ah KEHM-puhs), was born in 1379 to a blacksmith named John Hemerken and his wife, Gertrude, who ran a school for children and apparently began her son's education. In 1392, at the age of thirteen, Thomas left his family to attend the chapter school in Deventer. That town was home to a number of the Brethren of the Common Life, followers of an ascetic religious movement known as the devotio moderna (modern devotion), founded between 1374 and 1384 by Gerhard Groote (1340-1384) and most prominent in Holland, the Rhineland, and central Germany. Thomas did not come to Deventer because of the movement, however, and contrary to a common misconception he never became a member of the Brethren. Still, he accepted the ideals of the devotio moderna, was befriended by Groote's successor, Florentius Radewyns (c. 1350-1400), and lived in a hostel that the Brethren owned. When he left the school in Deventer in 1399, on the verge of adulthood, he was well versed in Latin and knew some philosophy, though little of theology.

Thomas was reared at the end of the catastrophic fourteenth century, which brought to Europe famine, the Black Death (bubonic plague), economic disruption and decline, the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453), conflicts between inept monarchs and greedy aristocrats, and popular uprisings, such as the French Jacquerie and the English Peasants’ Revolt. There were also disturbing problems within a church increasingly politicized during the Middle Ages. Its image suffered greatly between 1305 and 1376, when the Papacy was transplanted from Rome to Avignon and lay mired in corruption, and even more so when there ensued in 1378 a papal schism, with two rival (French and Italian) popes and then, from 1409 to 1417, three. Meanwhile, the upper clergy's wealth aroused criticism, while the reforming orders of recent centuries the Cistercian monastics and the Dominican and Franciscan friars had lost much of their original vitality. Disillusioned with ecclesiastics and demoralized by disasters that some attributed to God's wrath toward the Church, many Europeans clamored for reform or sought spiritual consolation outside ordinary avenues. Yet conciliarist reformers failed to replace the pope with a council, and the challenge that John Wyclif and Jan Hus posed to the Church's worldliness and to fundamental doctrines about revelation, the sacraments, and papal authority, the Church branded as heresy.

The devotio moderna avoided that stigma, despite its resemblance to an earlier generation of ascetic and often heretical spiritualists, the Beghards and Beguines. Its founder, Groote, the well-educated son of a wealthy cloth merchant, was loyal and orthodox. Following a serious illness in 1372, he lived for a time in a monastery near Arnhem belonging to the austere eremitic order of Carthusians, whose asceticism he adopted (although he did not become a monk). In 1374, he donated a house he had inherited in Deventer to a group of religious women who became known as the Sisters of the Common Life, and over the next decade a similar group of Brethren emerged. Both groups devoted themselves to a common life of poverty, chastity, and obedience, although they took no formal vows and belonged to no established order. In 1387, however, some adherents of the devotio moderna known as the Windesheim congregation adopted and rigorously observed the rule of the Augustinian canons. Thomas's older brother, John, became prior of St. Agnietenberg, one of the order's houses near Zwolle. In 1399, Thomas visited him there and became a monk, though he was not invested until 1406. Ordained a priest in 1413 or 1414, Thomas served unsuccessfully as procurator and subprior before moving on with better results to a career as a copyist, preacher, and writer of hymns and treatises. Aside from being exiled with his fellow monks to Ludingakerk from 1429 to 1431 and a brief stint in Mariaborn, he remained at St. Agnietenberg for the rest of his life.

Life's Work

As is illustrated above, the particulars of Thomas's long life (he died at the age of ninety-two) are well known, something that often cannot be said for much less obscure figures in Medieval History/Middle Ages. The only important exception is the mistaken notion that he was one of the Brethren, when in fact he was a monk for his entire adult life. Whereas a Brother or Sister of the Common Life might abandon with comparative ease the life of poverty, chastity, and obedience, Thomas's vows were formal and permanent, though in any case, he showed little inclination to return to the world once he had left it. Contemporary observers reveal that the adult Thomas, described as of medium build and dark complexion, was quiet by nature and most fond of reading, study, and contemplation. Indeed, the great value of a life of prayerful, meditative, monastic devotion is a theme found throughout his work. Even the limited involvement of the Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life in the ordinary world which must have seemed particularly wicked to a monk living at the end of the fourteenth century and the beginning of the fifteenth was more than Thomas wanted.

Given that the basic facts about Thomas's life are clear, it is ironic that the most important part of his life's work his authorship of Imitatio Christi (c. 1427; The Imitation of Christ, c. 1460-1530) is the one most subject to doubt and controversy. Ever since the fifteenth century, there have been those who question whether Thomas is, in fact, the author of The Imitation of Christ. His authorship is accepted by the late R. R. Post in The Modern Devotion: Confrontation with Reformation and Humanism (1968), generally considered the definitive work on the devotio moderna. Post notes, however, that claims have been made on behalf of a number of writers, often along essentially nationalistic lines. For a long time many French scholars favored Jean de Gerson (also known as Jean Charlier), the reform-minded chancellor of the University of Paris at the beginning of the fourteenth century, although by the twentieth century such claims had diminished. A number of Italians have suggested Giovanni Gersen (whose name, Post observes, is suspiciously like Jean de Gerson'); it is impossible, however, to prove even the existence of this man, who was supposedly abbot of Santo Stefano, a Benedictine monastery in Vercelli in northern Italy. The Belgians, Dutch, and Germans have generally accepted that Thomas wrote The Imitation of Christ, but a vocal minority has given credit instead to the founder of the devotio moderna, Gerhard Groote. Since the 1920's the application of textual criticism has given renewed vigor to the debate, with various scholars supporting Groote, Giovanni Gersen, and Gerard Zerbolt (one of the Brethren associated with Radewyns in Deventer), although Thomas is still the most commonly accepted author.

Thomas was in any case quite a prolific writer, producing biographies of Groote, Radewyns, and other important figures in the devotio moderna, as well as a number of devotional works although none of the others was of the quality of The Imitation of Christ. In fact, it is the obvious superiority of the latter that has led some to doubt that Thomas wrote it, while his extensive work as a copyist has been used to suggest that he merely transcribed someone else's book (even a manuscript dated to 1441, written in Thomas's own hand and containing The Imitation of Christ and nine other treatises, is unsigned). It is doubtful whether the question will ever be settled to everyone's satisfaction. Yet regardless of the controversy about the author's identity, it is the attribution of The Imitation of Christ to Thomas that has lifted him out of obscurity, and more generally it is that work which has made the devotio moderna as influential as it has been since the fourteenth century. Thus, if Thomas's authorship is accepted as it is here The Imitation of Christ must be treated as the centerpiece of his life's work. (Conversely, if his authorship should ever be decisively disproved, Thomas's other work will merit considerably less attention from historians.)

The Imitation of Christ is actually not one treatise, but four, the first of which appeared no later than 1424, while all were completed by 1427. Thomas evidently never intended that the four treatises be seen as a unit, and indeed, in the century after their appearance, they were not always found together or in the same order as in more recent editions. Yet despite some differences among the four and especially between the first three and the fourth the treatises have several elements in common. As Post notes, all were written for monastics who shared Thomas's contemplative lifestyle, a rather narrow group. Thus it was not the author's purpose to address the concerns of the general populace, of adherents of the devotio moderna as a whole, of the secular clergy, or even of all the regular clergy (monks and nuns). That is not to suggest, however, that Thomas dealt with matters unfamiliar to other monastics or followers of the devotio moderna or that what he had to say could not be appreciated outside his small intended audience. In fact, notwithstanding his exhortation to despise the things of the world, Thomas's urgings that men seek comfort, consolation, and security in the love of God, the friendship of Jesus, and a turning to the inner self, or spirit, struck a responsive chord among many of his contemporaries living in the world, as they have for subsequent generations.

A common “weakness” of the treatises is that the author gives them almost no theological foundation: These are not learned works. Yet this unscholarly quality, at the same time, is one of the strengths of The Imitation of Christ, for it is the simplicity of Thomas's explication of Christian virtues and practices that has attracted so many readers to his work. In the sometimes frightening conditions of the fifteenth century, Thomas's straightforward, inspirational prose met the needs of many individual believers much more immediately and directly than the complex arguments of theologians or even the Latin liturgy of the local parish church, which they might understand only partially. All the treatises, particularly the first three, encourage the contemptus mundi (contempt for the world) associated with traditional medieval monasticism, in which the regular clergy sought to escape the temptations and sinfulness of the world by living in isolation from it. Yet while the monastic life was not an option that most of Thomas's contemporaries considered, a significant number shared his disdain for the vanities of the world, while his emphasis on remaining pure in heart is one of the central ideals of Christianity, in or out of the monastery. Another pervasive characteristic of the treatises is Thomas's disregard for secular learning, which at times seems rather anti-intellectual (although he encourages respect for the “wise”).

The first treatise admonishes its readers to lead a more spiritual life by reading the Bible, the church fathers, and other holy works, by praying and meditating, by being humble in the presence of greater wisdom and obedient to authority, and by contemplating the life and holy sacrifice of Christ, as well as the reader's own life, sinful nature, and impending judgment by God. In the second treatise, Thomas concentrates on the inner life self-examination and self-knowledge, being at peace with oneself and accepting life's adversity, seeking the friendship of Christ and the comfort of God, and willingly following the way of the Cross. The longer third treatise stresses disregard of worldly desires, temporal honor, and the opinions of men, while emphasizing the need to accept humbly God's will and Christ's example, trusting not one's own wisdom and virtue. Unlike the first three treatises, the fourth deals explicitly with sacramental life, focusing on the Eucharist, the sacrament most frequently received by all medieval Christians (some weekly or even daily) and by no means limited in importance to monastics alone.

Significance

The overall significance of the devotio moderna outside its own age has been much debated. Post contends that its impact on Christian Humanism and the Reformation was at most very slight. Yet while Post's account of the devotio moderna is considered to be in most respects the ultimate authority, other historians have discerned a substantially greater degree of influence on such figures of the Reformation era as the Christian Humanist Desiderius Erasmus and the first great Protestant reformer, Martin Luther. Nor does it seem mere coincidence that pietism, asceticism, and mysticism of the type espoused by Thomas à Kempis and the Brethren remained characteristic of religious movements in the Low Countries and Germany, the heartland of the devotio moderna, during the Reformation and even into the Enlightenment. (Thomas and other followers of the devotio moderna, however, did not aspire to the ecstatic union with God sought by some late medieval and early modern mystics.)

Much more apparent, however, and thus less controversial, is the continuing importance of The Imitation of Christ from the fifteenth century onward. It is still widely read by Catholics and Protestants alike and is one of the most important devotional works available to modern readers. The translation of the entire work into English took some time. The first English version, done by an anonymous translator in 1460, and the first English edition, produced in 1502 by William Atkinson of the University of Cambridge, included only the first three books. The fourth was finally rendered in English in 1503 by, interestingly enough, Margaret Beaufort, the mother of the English king Henry VII (who reigned from 1485 to 1509). Thereafter, there were numerous editions containing all four treatises, the most important being that compiled in 1530 by Richard Whitford of Queens’ College, Cambridge. This edition enjoys much the same status with regard to others in English as the King James Version of the Bible does relative to later English translations of the Scriptures. Like the King James Bible, it is thought to have been so widely read as to have had a formative influence on the modern English language. There have, however, been many other English versions of The Imitation of Christ in print in modern times, a testimony to the book's continuing significance.

The Imitation of Christ has been translated into many languages; in fact, the bulk of scholarship that it has generated is found in non-English works (notably French, German, and Italian). Regardless of what tongue is spoken by its readers, the continuing popularity of this work is remarkable. Although written by a comparatively obscure adherent of a religious movement smaller and less organized than many others in the late medieval and early modern period, and directed not to Christian society as a whole or even all monastics but limiting its intended audience to monks whose lifestyle was primarily contemplative, it remains relevant to generation after generation. The work of Thomas à Kempis thus surpasses in longevity not only that of Gerhard Groote and Florentius Radewyns but also that of more famous figures of medieval Christianity.

Bibliography

Creasy, William C. Introduction to The Imitation of Christ, by Thomas à Kempis. Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1989. Creasy provides a useful introduction to his modern translation of Thomas’s most famous work, reminding readers that the intellectual life was not an invention of the modern age and tracing Thomas’s influence on later theologians and devotional writers.

Grendler, Paul. “Form and Function in Italian Renaissance Popular Books.” Renaissance Quarterly 46, no. 3 (Autumn, 1993): 451ff. Seeking what made popular literature popular, Grendler compares the content and audience of four fifteenth and sixteenth century works, including Thomas’s The Imitiation of Christ.

Hyma, Albert. The Christian Renaissance: A History of the “Devotio Moderna.” 1924. Reprint. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1965. Unique among English-language works in that it rejects Thomas as author of The Imitation of Christ in favor of Zerbolt. It asserts perhaps more strongly than any work in any language that the devotio moderna was the source of all religious reform in the sixteenth century, whether manifested in Christian Humanism, Protestantism, or the Catholic Reformation.

Montmorency, J. E. G. de. Thomas à Kempis: His Age and Book. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1906. Reprint. Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1970. A still-useful English-language biography of Thomas. Places Thomas and the devotio moderna in a wider historical framework, taking into account the very uneasy time in which both emerged. Montmorency examines the debate about authorship up to the beginning of the twentieth century, although he prematurely declares it at an end with Thomas the author. He also discusses in detail the structure of The Imitation of Christ and examines its content in the context of medieval Christianity as a whole.

Oakley, Francis. The Western Church in the Later Middle Ages. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1978. Contains a chapter on modes of piety, which gives considerable attention to the devotio moderna and Thomas. This book is useful in relating both to other aspects of late medieval religious history, including the problem of order, doctrine and theology, heresy, reform movements, and spirituality. Oakley for the most part follows Post in his interpretation of the devotio moderna and Thomas’s career.

Oberman, Heiko A. Masters of the Reformation: The Emergence of a New Intellectual Climate in Europe. Translated by Dennis D. Martin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Contains a chapter on the devotio moderna, although Oberman, unfortunately, has relatively little to say about Thomas and The Imitation of Christ. With regard to the impact of the movement and Thomas on the Reformation, Oberman accepts the position taken by Post that it was slight.

Ozment, Steven E., ed. The Reformation in Medieval Perspective. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1971. Although not concerned primarily with Thomas or the devotio moderna as a whole, this book nevertheless examines the connection between late medieval reform movements and the Reformation, giving some attention to the influence of Thomas on subsequent reformers. Some of the authors featured here Gerhard Ritter, Bernd Moeller, and so on see a greater influence than Post, who is also represented in this collection.

Post, R. R. The Modern Devotion: Confrontation with Reformation and Humanism. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1968. The essential English-language work on the devotio moderna and Thomas, all the more important because it discusses in considerable detail the very extensive non-English scholarly literature on both subjects and thus deals comprehensively with the controversies about the movement’s influence on the Reformation and the authorship of The Imitation of Christ. Although he regards Thomas as the most likely author, Post examines in depth the earlier attempts to give credit for the work to Jean de Gerson, Giovanni Gersen, and Groote, as well as more recent scholarship. Devotes only one chapter to Thomas, but makes reference to his work in discussing various aspects of the devotio moderna and offers very valuable commentary on The Imitation of Christ.