Vercingetorix

Gallic leader

• Born: c. 75 b.c.e.
• Birthplace: Central Gaul (now in France)
• Died: c. 46 b.c.e.
• Place of death: Rome (now in Italy)

Vercingetorix fashioned a coalition of Gallic tribes to expel their Roman conquerors. Although he was captured at his capital of Alesia by Julius Caesar, Vercingetorix has long been identified as an early French national hero.

Early Life

The Celts were a nonliterate society prior to the Roman era, so there are no written sources regarding the Roman conquest of Gaul from the Gallic point of view. From the Roman side, Julius Caesar’s Comentarii de bello Gallico (52-51 b.c.e.; translated with Comentarii de bello cinli, 45 b.c.e., as Commentaries, 1609) is primarily a narration of his successes during his eight-year war against the tribes of Gaul. It is also one of the few surviving written accounts of Celtic political structures and culture. The Gallic Revolt of 52 b.c.e., which is described in book 7 of Comentarii de bello Gallico, provides the only source of information for the life of Vercingetorix (vuhr-sihn-JEHT-uhr-ihks). Caesar’s work must be considered self-serving, for he was interested only in narrating his interpretation of his victories; moreover, his analysis and descriptions of the Gallic chief are limited to the revolt of 52 b.c.e.

According to Caesar, Vercingetorix was the son of Celtillus, chief of the Arverni, a Celtic tribe in central Gaul. The father had once claimed overlordship over the whole of Gaul but had been executed, probably by a conspiracy of his nobles and other Gallic tribal chiefs, for having sought to make himself king. Caesar, then about fifty years old, refers to Vercingetorix as a young man, which would mean that the Gaul was probably about thirty at the time of the revolt. Caesar credited Vercingetorix with numerous talents, including great strength of character, boundless energy, and the ability to lead a fractious society. It is clear from his writing that, of all of his Gallic opponents, Vercingetorix was the leader Caesar respected most.

Other aspects of the early life of Vercingetorix can only be inferred. He was a Gallic Celt of noble birth, and societal traditions would have demanded that he be schooled in the Druidical traditions. Celtic culture placed a premium on skill in warfare by adult males, and the youth would have been rigorously trained in Celtic battle tactics and weaponry. Celtic oral traditions of the period, which almost always focused on military virtues such as courage and bravery, were assuredly an integral part of his learning. Additionally, he was clearly an intelligent leader who learned quickly. He had watched and learned from the Roman conquests of Gallic tribes by the Romans, which had been accomplished over a six-year period (58-53 b.c.e.).

Life’s Work

The Gaul into which Vercingetorix had been born was divided into dozens, perhaps hundreds, of tribal groupings of various Celtic peoples. Although Celts spoke similar dialects and shared many cultural traits, they were in no way a unified people. The Druids were especially significant in this society, and it was they who passed on Celtic traditions and beliefs. It was also they who resisted the spread of Roman hegemony in Celtic areas and who orchestrated resistance to Roman conquest. Celtic warriors were fiercely independent and high-spirited, according to Roman accounts. The Romans considered them to be brave but undisciplined warriors who could not, or would not, unite against a common danger.

When Caesar was appointed governor of the province of Cisalpine Gaul, in northwestern Italy, in 59 b.c.e., it had been at his own request. The Celts of Transalpine Gaul across the Alps had long been viewed as dangerous enemies, and Caesar viewed the position as an opportunity to enhance his military reputation. In 58 b.c.e., his legions conquered first the Suevi of southeastern Gaul and then the Helvetii, from the area of modern Switzerland, thereby extending Roman influence. He moved northward, down the Rhine River, against the Belgii of northwestern Gaul, then conquered the Veneti of western Gaul, and finally subdued the Aquitani in southwestern Gaul. Celtic Britain was attacked in 55-54 b.c.e., and his army raided the Germans in 55 and 53 b.c.e. Most of 54-53 b.c.e. was devoted to the brutal suppression of several Celtic uprisings in northern Gaul.

Roman success had been largely the result of the inability of the Celtic tribes to unite in the face of the Roman danger. Caesar had also avoided central Gaul, wherein lay the most formidable of his potential Gallic enemies. Militarily, central Gaul had been isolated and surrounded, a fact not unnoticed by the Gallic tribes there. When the whole of Gaul was treated as if it were a subservient province, it was clear that it was only a matter of time before central Gaul was attacked. During the winter of 53-52 b.c.e., when it was learned that Caesar had left his army in garrison in north Gaul while he returned to Rome, a coalition of tribes from central Gaul began plotting to expel the Romans. At Cenabum (modern Orleans), Roman officials and traders were slaughtered. The conspiracy turned quickly to the youthful Vercingetorix as commander in chief, showing that he was already held in high esteem by his peers. That they turned to the son of the chief who had been killed for having had the same pretensions is clear evidence that the Gallic tribes recognized the Roman threat for what it was.

Vercingetorix swiftly welded a confederacy of Celtic tribes on whom he could count in the coming war. As commander in chief, he demanded and received hostages as pledge of a willingness to fight with him. Allies were given quotas of troops to arm and prepare, and he himself set about extending the alliance to areas already conquered by the Romans. Vercingetorix hoped to smash the Roman presence in Gaul before Caesar could return, and he moved his forces against the Roman legions wintering in northern garrisons. Despite severe weather, and with his path blocked by mountains and deep snow, Caesar effected a crossing into Gaul. His first action was to harry the rebellious tribes of southeastern Gaul, forcing Vercingetorix to move southward to face the threat. Caesar then moved rapidly northward to rejoin his troops.

The war of the next few months was that of parry and thrust. Initially, each side attacked the oppida, or hillforts, loyal to the other. Each side also resorted to a scorched-earth policy to deprive the enemy of needed supplies. Vercingetorix besieged Gorgobina (modern St. Parize-le-Chatel), the capital for the pro-Roman Boii Celtic tribe; Caesar retaliated by first attacking Vallaunodunum (modern Montargis) and then retaking Cenabum. One of the most brutal battles during this phase was the Roman siege of Avaricum (modern Bourges), during which Vercingetorix attempted and failed to relieve the siege. Caesar claimed to have killed all but eight hundred of the forty thousand inhabitants when he successfully stormed the city, although these numbers are surely inflated. Interestingly, his praise of Vercingetorix following this stunning defeat for the Gauls was high indeed, for he noted that it took a man of great ability to retain, let alone expand, his power after such a disaster.

In the spring of 52 b.c.e., Caesar moved to attack the oppidum of Gergovia (near modern Clermont), which Vercingetorix swiftly moved to protect. The two sides built camps facing each other, with neither willing to force an open battle. The Romans attempted to take the town by storm but failed, a disaster that prompted more Gallic tribes to join the rebellion. Caesar, though, stunned Vercingetorix by leaving the Gauls behind, marching northward towards Lutetia (modern Paris), all the while laying waste to the countryside. Vercingetorix was forced to leave his strong position and to advance against the Roman army. When Caesar moved against him, Vercingetorix attacked the Roman column with his cavalry. In this battle, the Gaulish cavalry, on which the rebellion had placed much hope, was defeated by the Roman cavalry.

Vercingetorix was forced to withdraw to Alesia, a strong oppidum located on a massif at the confluence of two streams. Although Alesia provided Vercingetorix with an excellent defensive position, he was swiftly besieged by Caesar. Within weeks, the Romans had completed their circumvallation of Alesia, with eight strong camps connected by redoubts and walls. An outer wall was also constructed to protect the Romans from the Gauls who would come to the aid of Vercingetorix. This relieving army, estimated at a hyperbolic 250,000 by Caesar, soon besieged the besiegers. Sadly for Vercingetorix and for Alesia, disunity among the Gallic forces sealed their fate, for attacks on the Roman lines were uncoordinated and failed at great cost. Even when Vercingetorix attacked from the inner side and Vercassivellaunus, a cousin of Vercingetorix, led a simultaneous attack from the outer side, the Roman lines remained unbroken. Realizing the futility of further fighting, the outer host departed; Vercingetorix submitted to Caesar, who took him to Rome and paraded him through the streets on display. According to Dion Cassius, the only extant Roman source to discuss the death of Vercingetorix, the Arverni leader was allowed to live for six more years and then publicly executed as part of a Roman spectacle.

Significance

In life, Vercingetorix warranted little more than a footnote. His entire career spanned less than a year, and his success against the Romans was minimal. He won no major battles, and his capture meant the end of Gallic aspirations of expelling the Romans from Gaul. The greatness of Vercingetorix lay in his ability to form an alliance where one had never existed before. Through force of will and persuasiveness, he manipulated and cajoled many tribes into working together for the common good. Yet he never had the full support of all Gallic tribes, for many remained loyal to the Romans; nor did he have total commitment from his own confederates. Even had he succeeded in defeating the Romans, he would have quickly found his united Gaul to have been a chimera. It should not be considered his fault that other Gallic leaders were not as perceptive as he and that, ultimately, his efforts failed.

His legacy, however, is far greater than that of a failed military leader. Caesar ascribed to him the goal of “freedom of Gaul,” an intent Vercingetorix surely promoted but which probably was a cover for his own personal goals. Still, in death, Vercingetorix became a symbol of resistance to foreign aggression and domination. Nineteenth century France rediscovered Vercingetorix and made him into a national hero. Statues were erected, with the portraits stamped on coins issued during his rebellion providing the image of his face. The lost cause of the Gaul had become the quest for national unity and the ideal state.

Bibliography

Caesar, Julius. The Battle for Gaul. Translated by Anne Wiseman and Peter Wiseman. Boston: D. R. Godine, 1980. The introduction includes perspectival information as well as interpretations based on recently discovered evidence.

Caesar, Julius. The Conquest of Gaul. Translated by S. Hartford. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1951. The introduction serves to place the Gallic War within the dynamics of late republican Rome and of Roman Imperial expansion. It also outlines the nature of Gaul and of the Roman army of Caesar.

Cook, S. A., F. E. Adcock, and M. P. Charlesworth, eds. The Roman Republic, 133-44 B.C. Vol. 9 in The Cambridge Ancient History. Rev. ed. London: Cambridge University Press, 1966. Outlines the progress of the revolt in chapter 13, part 6. Caesar is used extensively as the source, but it provides details on geography and modern place names along with interpretations of events.

Holmes, Thomas Rice Edward. Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul. 2d ed. New York: AMS Press, 1911. London: Oxford University Press, 1931. Holmes is still considered to be one of the finest interpreters of Caesar’s military history of the war. Of particular value are his footnotes and references, which clarify and elucidate Caesar’s narrative. Holmes also provides information about other Roman sources of the period.

Jiménez, Ramon L. Caesar Against the Celts. Edison, N.J.: Castle Books, 2001. Although Jiménez does not bring much new information to the topic, he does provide a very readable and accessible overview of the Gallic Wars. Includes bibliographical references and an index.

King, Anthony. Roman Gaul and Germany. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Although only a small portion of this work deals with Vercingetorix, it places the rebellion of 52 b.c.e. within the context of the times. The discussion of archaeological work done at Celtic sites in Gaul is most illuminating, for it demonstrates how historical insights can be inferred without written evidence.