Darwinism

In 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, which ultimately became one of the most widely read and socially significant works of scientific literature ever printed. In this book, Darwin presented the idea that the various species of mammals, fish, birds, and other forms of life have evolved over the course of natural history into their present-day forms. Darwin did not use the term "evolution;" he referred to this process as "descent with modification." In Origin of Species, Darwin puts forth an argument that "descent with modification" occurs through a biological mechanism that he termed "natural selection." Darwin’s concept of descent with modification via natural selection popularly came to be known as "Darwinism," a label that persists today, even though current evolutionary theory in biology and physical anthropology has advanced far beyond Darwin’s original premise. Despite their importance to the life sciences, Charles Darwin, Darwinism, and the theory of evolution in general remain controversial topics and are bitterly opposed by some Americans today who find Darwin and his concepts incompatible with their personal religious convictions.

Background

Darwin’s concept of descent with modification through natural selection emerged from observations he noted during the five-year voyage he participated in from 1831 to 1836. At the age of twenty-two, Darwin began a journey aboard the HMS Beagle that took him to South America, Australia, the Canary Islands off the coast of northwestern Africa, and other regions around the world. This international voyage exposed Darwin to a wide array of biological diversity across a wide range of geographic environments. This was a very significant experience, as very few scientific figures at the time had observed firsthand the different forms of life that exist in various environmental and geographic settings. After returning from his voyage, Darwin worked quietly for many years, processing his observations and developing the basic tenets of natural selection and descent with modification.

By 1844, Darwin had formulated his theory of biological evolution, but it was not until 1859 that he finally published On the Origin of Species. Darwin’s treatise essentially argued that there is a "competition for survival" or "struggle for existence" among members of a species within a given environmental setting, and that those organisms that have certain traits or features that increase their chances to survive into adulthood (commonly known as "adaptations") are more "fit" for their environment and thus exhibit a greater degree of reproductive success than other members of their species who lack these adaptive traits. Those beneficial traits that enhance survival are thus passed on in greater numbers to offspring over successive generations, and this is what drives evolutionary change over time.

Despite its scientific and scholarly significance, however, Darwin’s theory caused an uproar in Victorian England by igniting the wrath of the clergy and many within the general public. By seeking to explain the diversity of life in natural terms, without direct references to God, Darwin was perceived by some as promoting heresy or an anti-Christian agenda. These perceptions linger to this day, and evolutionary theory still faces considerable opposition in the United States.

Overview

Evolutionary theory in the twenty-first century is quite different than that originally proposed by Darwin. While Darwin discussed variations in traits and the inheritance of adaptations among offspring, Darwin himself was unable to explain how variations in traits arose in the first place, as well as how traits were passed down through generations. The answer to each of these questions lies in an understanding of DNA and genetics, which were unknown in Darwin’s lifetime. The emergence of the field of genetics in the twentieth century greatly refined and expanded nineteenth-century Darwinism, giving rise to present-day evolutionary theory, which is technically known as "Neo-Darwinism" or "Modern Evolutionary Synthesis." Contemporary evolutionary theory explains biological diversity not just in terms of natural selection (as in traditional Darwinism), but also through genetic mutations, instances of gene flow between previously separated populations, and occasional fluctuations in the distribution of certain genetic traits (known as "genetic drift").

Nevertheless, Charles Darwin and the theory of evolution face significant opposition in many regions of the United States. Some religious Americans today still find the theory of evolution to conflict with their spirituality and faith, since it appears to contradict Biblical accounts of the creation of life on Earth. A Gallup News survey in 2024 revealed that 37 percent of Americans believed that God created humans in their present form, 34 percent believed that humans evolved with God's guidance, and 24 percent believed that humans evolved on their own over time. The battle between science and religion over the issue of evolution has been particularly contentious in US school systems. The famous "Scopes Monkey Trial" of the 1920s resulted in high school biology teacher John Scopes being found guilty of teaching evolution in class and fined $100, while in 2004 the Dover Area School District in Pennsylvania attempted to "balance" the teaching of evolution in high school biology courses with "intelligent design." Federal judge John E. Jones ruled in 2005 that intelligent design was little more than Biblical creationism renamed by its proponents to sound like a scientific theory. Jones thus declared the Dover school board’s inclusion of intelligent design within its science curriculum unconstitutional.

However, not all religious denominations express opposition to Darwin and evolution. In 1996, for example, Pope John Paul II issued a papal statement that declared that science confirms evolution, that belief in evolution does not contradict a belief in Roman Catholic teachings, and that evolution does not prevent one from also believing in God. Likewise, 31 percent of Catholics, 11 percent of Evangelical Protestants, 58 percent of Jews, 67 percent of Buddhists, and 62 percent of Hindus in the United States believe life on earth has evolved over time, according to the Pew Research Center in 2024. Opposition to evolution is driven primarily by fundamentalist evangelical Christians, who tend to believe in a literal interpretation of Biblical scriptures, although evangelical Christians themselves differ individually in terms of their views regarding evolution.

Bibliography

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Lebo, Lauri. The Devil in Dover: An Insider’s Story of Dogma v. Darwin in Small-Town America. New York: The New Press, 2009. Print.

Masci, David. "On Darwin Day, 5 Facts about the Evolution Debate." Pew Research Center. Pew Research Center, 12 Feb. 2016. Web. 8 Aug. 2016.

McCoy, Terrence. "Pope Francis May Believe in Evolution, but 42 Percent of Americans Do Not." Washington Post. Washington Post, 29 Oct. 2014. Web.

Meyer, Stephen. Darwin’s Doubt: The Explosive Origin of Animal Life and the Case for Intelligent Design. New York: HarperCollins, 2014. Print.

Nye, Bill. Undeniable: Evolution and the Science of Creation. New York: St. Martin’s, 2015. Print.

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Taylor, Ashley P. "What Is Darwin's Theory of Evolution?" LiveScience, 14 Oct. 2022, www.livescience.com/474-controversy-evolution-works.html. Accessed 14 Nov. 2024.

Taylor, James. The Voyage of the Beagle: Darwin’s Extraordinary Adventure aboard FitzRoy’s Famous Survey Ship. New York: Conway, 2015. Print.