Generalization (psychology)
Generalization in psychology refers to a process where responses learned from a specific stimulus extend to similar stimuli. This concept is integral to behavioral psychology and is closely associated with classical conditioning, a learning process pioneered by Ivan Pavlov. In his notable experiments with dogs, Pavlov demonstrated that when a neutral stimulus, such as a bell, is repeatedly presented alongside a significant stimulus like food, the neutral stimulus can eventually elicit a similar response on its own. This phenomenon shows that animals and humans can respond to stimuli that are not identical but share similarities with the original conditioned stimulus.
For instance, a dog conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell may also salivate at sounds that resemble the bell, like a wind chime. Similarly, a child who laughs at a picture of a monkey may also laugh at a drawing or a toy monkey, illustrating how generalization can apply across different contexts. Generalization is important for understanding both adaptive behaviors in everyday life and the mechanisms of learning, reflecting how past experiences can influence responses to new but related situations.
Generalization (psychology)
In behavioral psychology, generalization is part of the conditioning process and occurs when a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus causes the conditioned response. Conditioning is a process that involves the response to a stimulus through learning. The conditioned stimulus is the object or event that causes the conditioned response. The conditioned response is the reaction that is caused by the conditioned stimulus. Generalization can occur in both animals and humans.
Overview
Conditioning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936), a Russian physiologist. Pavlov conducted experiments in which dogs were conditioned to associate stimuli with food. He used the common knowledge that dogs have the natural reflex of salivating when they are presented with food. Through his experiments, he discovered that dogs also salivate when they encounter objects or events that are associated with food. For example, he realized that the dogs in his experiments salivated every time they saw the individual who normally brought them food, even if that individual did not have food. The reason for this is because, over time, the dogs learned to associate the individual with food. This conditioning meant that the mere presence of the individual (conditioned stimulus) caused the dogs to salivate (conditioned response), regardless of whether the individual had food.
Pavlov furthermore discovered that a bell associated with food also caused the dogs to salivate. At first, the ringing of a bell did not elicit a response from the dogs. But when a bell was rung each time the dogs were presented with food, the dogs began to salivate. As with the individual who brought the dogs' food, over time, the dogs learned to associate the ringing of the bell with food. Therefore, the dogs salivated (conditioned response) every time they heard the bell ringing (conditioned stimulus), even if food did not accompany the ringing of the bell.
Generalization works in much the same way. The difference is that with generalization, the conditioned stimulus is not present. Instead, a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus is present, and it is this similar stimulus that causes the conditioned response. In the example of Pavlov's dogs and the ringing bell, generalization purports that any stimulus that resembles a ringing bell (conditioned stimulus) would cause the dogs to salivate (conditioned response). For example, the ringing of a wind chime resembles that of a bell and would, therefore, cause salivation. A digital bell sound is another example of a similar stimulus that would cause salivation. No matter what the stimulus is, if it is similar enough to the conditioned stimulus, it will cause the conditioned response.
Generalization can also occur in humans. For example, a child can be conditioned to laugh (conditioned response) at a photograph of a monkey (conditioned stimulus). With generalization, that same child would laugh at any stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus, such as a drawing of a monkey or a monkey plush toy.
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