Executive Leadership

Leadership is slightly more obvious than it is valuable. One can exemplify leadership in a variety of ways. Maintaining an awareness of the bodies of knowledge on the topic is one among many. With an ability to draw from various sources and perspectives in a timely manner, an effective leader demonstrates preparation and readiness to articulate ideas, specify recommendations, and convince others of rationale soundness. This essay covers transactional leadership, transformational leadership, and servant leadership, and it conveys some tenets from each. Additionally, it summarizes leadership thought from a historical viewpoint. Most experts previously believed that leaders were individuals who were born possessing specific characteristics. Those older approaches gave way to some seeking to find the one best way to lead. Modern thinking suggests executive leadership effectiveness depends on the degree to which there is a match between style and organization of situations. A shift in thinking holds the potential for emphasizing service over results. It is likely that service to others will gain importance given the expected growth of jobs and leadership opportunities in the nonprofit sector. The main focal points of executive leadership include mission accomplishment, resource acquisition, and external affairs. This essay aims to help readers recognize some requirements for leadership so prospective leaders may prepare to act on them.

Keywords Effectiveness; External affairs; Mission accomplishment; Nonprofit sector; Resource acquisition; Servant leadership; Service; Transactional leadership; Transformational leadership

Management > Executive Leadership

Overview

Leadership is valuable and obvious. Most people define leadership according to their observations of people with whom they interact daily. Others may posit that leadership is the act of guiding a group towards an outcome (Burckbuchler, 2022). In terms of the workplace, some would agree that managers, supervisors, and executives are leaders in a formal sense, though they may fall short of the leadership we expect to see in them. Fortunately, a few of our co-workers and associates with whom we enjoy informal relationships fit the leadership role better than others who occupy authoritative positions. The need for leadership is present at every level within and between organizations. This essay tends to focus on the top level and makes frequent references to the nonprofit sector.

Aside from job growth projections, significant differences exist between nonprofit organizations and governmental or for-profit entities. “To measure its effectiveness, a nonprofit must ask itself, ‘Are we really delivering on our mission, not just meeting budget, and are we getting maximum impact from our expenditures?’” (Epstein & McFarlan, 2011). Leaders of nonprofit organizations should hold or acquire skills that allow them to fulfill missions, acquire resources, develop strategies, and navigate external and political environments. In short supply, some publications on the topic of nonprofit executive leadership are available and tend to focus reader attention on interactions between presidents of the organization and its board. It takes time to rise to the top of the organizational ladder, yet prospective leaders begin developing their skills now rather than later, for the benefits of doing so will become more evident with the passage of time and through service in diverse settings.

Regardless of the sector(s) in which twenty-first century undergraduates and future leaders seek or will find gainful employment, it is likely the contents of this essay will be insightful and informative. As the workforce continually evolves, execuitive leadership can aid business success (Burckbuchler, 2022). One of the aims here is to provide content that is applicable across the landscape of modern organization types. Furthermore, readers will finish this essay knowing the difference between a manager and a leader, or between management and leadership. Modern knowledge on the topic asserts that leadership has more to do with influencing others than it does with exercising authority over others through title or position. Moreover, literature suggests that leaders influence followers and vice versa, while formal authority often fades into the background. In other words, some scholars and practitioners assert that a leader usually gains authority because their followers are willing to lend it. In essence, leaders exist only if they have followers and, as we shall discover in the pages ahead, some leaders function by serving their followers. Indeed, some studies have shown that, for example, to improve service quality and maintain customers, organizations must ensure their employees' job satisfaction (Pansoo & Jang-Hyup, 2013).

Applications

Through what approaches can one become an exemplary leader? Attempting to answer that question, it is interesting to note that a countless number of college and high school students are satisfying graduation requirements by earning credits for service-learning projects, community service tasks, experiential learning arrangements, and the like. This fact alone may serve to demonstrate the immediate and future needs to pursue effective leadership through various means. Another fact of interest is that the literature on this topic contains a lot of material debating whether experience or instruction is the most effective approach for learning about leadership.

Corporate governance is said to be related to corporate performance (Chun-Yao, Zong-Jhe, & Chun-Yi, 2013). Taken here as evidence of real tension between the academic sector and the corporate sector concerning leadership program effectiveness, corporations and management consultants argue from a standpoint that leadership is a topic essentially self-taught. In contrast, business school representatives claim that corporate entities offer programs primarily geared toward issues facing a specific firm and industry, concluding that they fall short of exposing participants to larger environmental contexts in which leaders truly operate. Casting those arguments aside for the moment, this essay merely scratches the surface addressing subjects such as leadership traits, styles, and skills and noting the interdependencies among them.

In brief, it is important to assert that personal traits are ineffective and leadership styles are irrelevant in the absence of skillful communications. Some combination of them will keep workers and organizations moving toward their futures. In the broadest sense, an organization is a group of individuals who come together to share responsibility for achieving three general goals common across the universe of organizations: Growth, stability, and survival.

One challenge executives face is how to channel individual energy and group activities toward goal achievement and how to maximize performance levels and improve output and service qualities. In essence, organizational results are a function of leadership skill development and its perpetual application to challenging situations. There are a variety of approaches and perspectives on how executives and their subordinates can pursue and meet those challenges. A good place to begin is with an overview of various perspectives on leadership. By understanding those perspectives, readers will find themselves prepared and ready to handle a variety of situations they might encounter during their personal or professional livelihoods.

Leadership Foundations & Perspectives

Able to borrow from various perspectives in a timely manner, an executive leader must be ready to articulate ideas, specify recommendations, and convince others that the underlying rationale is sound. Those analytical and communication skills also arise, in part, due to the leader's exposure to opportunities for interactions with highly respected leaders. In addition, the number of interactions and those abilities are a result of the passage of time because individuals will accumulate experiences and encounter a variety of settings as they tend to their personal and professional lives. In the process, leadership learning will occur as they sharpen their self-awareness and recognize the influences they have on others.

According to Chester Barnard, leadership is the ability of a superior to influence the behavior of a subordinate or group and persuade them to follow a particular course of action. In addressing the topic of executive leadership, it is necessary to introduce readers to the primary responsibilities or functions of executives. In his classic book Functions of the Executive (1968), Barnard outlines those responsibilities. Many recognize them in abbreviated form as POS-D-CORB, which is a device by which to remember respectively the following list of functions: Planning; organizing; staffing; directing; coordinating (drops one letter); and budgeting. It may serve students of executive leadership well to gain some experience in each in addition to memorizing them.

Efficiency & Effectiveness

Barnard also drew attention to the efficacy of organizations at a time when there was a mechanistic-type fixation on efficiency. Long before the organic and systems perspectives on organizations came into existence, some problems arose as subunits attempted to maximize their own efficiencies in isolation from each other. In effect, subunits would look inward, thereby creating some operating distance between them and other subunits and between the organization and those on the outside whom it serves. Obviously, it takes multiple subunits to deliver a good or service to a customer, but the fixation on departmental efficiencies virtually disrupted the focus on deliveries to clients, customers, and the like. In sum, the organization became highly efficient, but it did so at the expense of becoming highly ineffective. That is, it began to lose sight of external demands and it was able to do so at minimal cost, a serious problem indeed.

Management scholars and organization theorists during the 1970s asked questions like: Does it matter if organizations do the right thing when there is a prevailing emphasis on doing whatever they do at the lowest average cost? Certainly, making more of an unwanted item will enhance efficiency as will cutting the costs of producing that item. One could go as far as saying very few leaders arise from the ranks of accountants, for instance, who typically form and implement cost-cutting measures. An inward-looking focus on efficiency will only last until another set of problems arises. Consequently, an ongoing challenge for executive leadership is to provide the right bundles of goods and services at an acceptable level of cost.

Drawing a lesson using the example above, cost-cutting while ignoring market situations may lead the organization to produce the wrong bundles at the lowest cost, which is probably a situation most organizations should avoid. Acquisition of additional resources is far more challenging than keeping an eye toward reduction of existing expenses. Organization survival requires providing, offering, and selling bundles that members of society value, want, and demand. This means executives should opt for effectiveness over efficiency whenever given a choice between them, especially when the cost-effectiveness point remains uncharted and unproven. Efficiency and effectiveness are two concepts integral to advancing Barnard's notion of cooperative systems.

A systems perspective considers characteristics of the internal operation and highlights the need to pay attention to the external environment in which the organization operates. In brief, a cooperative system of efficiency and effectiveness is required, according to Barnard. In addition, he asserts that purpose is the unifying and coordinating principle. Basic leadership requires individuals who know with precision an organization's purpose whether it is generating financial returns at the pleasure of stockholders, covering social services at the pleasure of stakeholders, or fulfilling other needs and desires.

Values, Mission & Vision

Values, mission, and vision are elements that frequently define an organization’s purpose. Warren Bennis, who is a leadership scholar and a former university president, pointed out in the late 1990s that the foremost responsibility of a leader is defining a vision for the organization and then building the capacity of realizing the vision. Around the same timeframe, as a temporary point of departure, the shared leadership view emerged independently of Bennis and from within the context of quality improvement in academe. It suggests a durable vision is one that a relevant community crafts in concert with a formal leader or authority figure. Whatever the method, a vision may unite the masses and its fruition is the result of bringing people together as they go about their work internalizing the vision. In his book On Becoming a Leader (1989), Bennis elaborates on the distinction between managers and leaders.

Three Forms of Leadership

That distinction serves as an introduction to two traditional and one emergent forms of leadership. On one hand, transactional leadership takes a short-term view in which managers keep an eye on profitability and focus on doing things right. Managers typically use existing systems, maintain controls, and create anguish while striving to answer questions of how and when. In contrast, leaders create trust, facilitate innovation, and use inspiration as they strive to answer questions of what and why. On the other hand, transformative leadership takes a long-term view in which leaders keep an eye toward the future and focus on doing the right things. The next section presents those two basic forms, and it resurrects servant leadership theory while covering a few of the conceptual and empirical overlaps and distinctions among them.

Leadership thought has come a long way since the 1920s and 1930s when most experts held the view that some individuals are born with specific traits and innate characteristics that make them natural leaders. That trait approach gave way to a style approach, which represented the continuous attempt to define the best way to lead. Modern thinking is much broader in scope and seems to signify arrival at a consensus. Apparently, leader effectiveness depends on the degree to which a leadership style matches current and future organization situations.

Transactional Leadership

In the political realm, Burns (1978) introduced transactional leadership and transformative leadership as a dichotomy into which leaders receive classification as being one or the other. That seminal work generated a lot of studies and empirical results. Some of those scholars, including Bass (1985) and others, converted Burns's original classification into a continuum with each form at opposite ends. Drawing from those works before them, researchers (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avilio, 1990) constructed four behaviors typically exhibited through transactional leadership. The first is contingent reward, which refers to a focus on resource exchanges. Followers receive various types of support and resources in exchange for their efforts and performance. The second two are variants of management by exception (MBE), which may be active or passive in nature. With a focus on setting standards, active MBE leaders intervene by taking corrective action when it is required whereas passive MBE leaders intervene only when problems become serious. The last is laissez-faire. It refers to leaders who adopt a hands-off approach, allowing followers to find their own way to meet organizational goals, sometimes avoiding leadership responsibilities altogether.

Executive Leadership

The topic of executive leadership represents a brief opportunity for departure from transactional leadership theory before arriving at a discussion of transformational leadership. In contrast to the routine oriented, transactions view of the workplace, executive leadership highlights behaviors that create and communicate clear direction for the organization's future, for implementing changes in structures and processes, and for evaluating critical success factors. It is obvious that leaders of effective organizations focus on doing the right things, which involves strategies that extend leadership beyond an organization's boundaries and into the external environment. As a chapter worthy of further investigation and exploration by readers of this essay, Herman and Heimovics (2016) advance the executive leadership concept by noting that strategies often cross organization boundaries and require political acumen. In short, executive leadership focuses on the relevance of accomplishing missions and acquiring resources and it strikes a close resemblance to transformational leadership theory.

Transformational Leadership

Drawing from the works of Burns and others, Judge and Piccolo (2004) constructed four behaviors that delineate genuine transformational leadership.

• The first is idealized influence, which refers to leaders who form high standards for conducting business in a moral and ethical manner, who gain respect by doing so, and who receive loyalty from followers.
• The second is inspirational motivation, which refers to leaders who articulate a strong vision based on ideals and values, thereby generating enthusiasm, instilling confidence, and producing inspiration among followers. Frequently, they employ symbolic actions and persuasive speeches. Significant in their association, when these first two behaviors congeal, the result is charisma.
• The third is intellectual stimulation, which refers to leaders who challenge the status quo by encouraging divergent perspectives and innovative strategies.
• The last is individual consideration, which refers to leader behaviors that involve developing, coaching, and consulting followers.

Servant Leadership

It is noteworthy that the year before Burns published Leadership (1978), Robert K. Greenleaf (1977) introduced the notion that a servant leader places the interests of followers ahead of his or her own. From a historical perspective, servant leadership received attention from a few researchers who proclaim it is a sound theory worthy of further study and application. Unfortunately, academic journal references to Greenleaf's works are scant in comparison to those of Burns. Nonetheless, the research that is available shows that servant-leaders exhibit the following the characteristics: listening; empathy; healing; awareness; persuasion; conceptualization; foresight; stewardship; commitment as mentors; and community building. It is rather odd that a servant leader's motivation prompts them to serve followers as opposed to leading them. In the twenty-first century, its popularity appears to be greater as a topic more suitable for professional workshops and seminar settings than for academic settings and college classrooms.

Servant leadership theory is ripe for empirical support in the twenty-first century and into the distant future. The modern world is emphasizing the importance of servant leadership as evident in the fact that service learning is becoming an integral part of secondary and postsecondary education. Washington (2007) points out that servant leadership theory is a subject of growing interest in leadership literature. Her research examines relationships of servant leadership theory to transformational and transactional theories of leadership.

Some key findings from that original research indicate that servant leadership compares with transformative leadership, contingent rewards, and active management by exception (MBE). Conversely, it contrasts with passive MBE and laissez faire. These findings hold promise for future leaders as they seek to uncover which leadership styles are most appropriate where, when, and why. Washington (2007) concludes that servant-leaders and transformational leaders share a common orientation to people, but the focal point of the former is organizational service, whereas the focal point of latter is organizational results. These findings are both timely and informative.

As one might guess, service to others will gain importance given the growth of jobs and leadership opportunities in the nonprofit sector. Executive leadership is likely to evolve naturally through those who choose to serve a nonprofit's need for mission fulfillment and resource acquisition and those who want to develop skills enabling them to span boundaries and navigate political environments. Until additional results from studies on servant leadership become available, the extant body of knowledge on transformative leadership seems to be an appropriate source for individuals aspiring to become tomorrow's leaders.

Leadership for the Future

As mentioned throughout this essay, the state of the art in leadership remains divided over whether practice or instruction is the best teacher. Academicians assert that the ideal environment for leadership development is one that teaches students technical business and communication skills and helps them gain a better understanding of ethics, self-awareness, and values. In contrast, practitioners assert that development occurs primarily through on-the-job training. This begs the question: How, then, do the inexperienced become leaders? Leadership instruction in college classrooms and in corporate workplaces has occurred for decades, but modern research is beginning to illuminate similarities and differences among the various perspectives.

A wide array of sources on leadership is available. Many of them focus on developing skills in the following areas: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intercultural, organizational, and nonverbal communications; listening; feedback; small group interactions; persuasion; public speaking; interviewing; question formation and articulation. It is obvious that communication skills play a vital role not only in type but also in transmission medium. The three major communication media are oral, written, and electronic. Those media and skills often determine leadership effectiveness.

It takes a lot more than courses, seminars, and books to master leadership skills. A scan of documents or a search over the Internet will produce a significant amount of information in a short period. An initial pass through some of the course offerings found suggest approaches by which someone aspiring to be an executive leader can realize their goal. In general, the nature of executive leadership involves the ability to serve as a change agent and to communicate effectively. More specifically, it involves crafting visions and anticipating their consequences on an organization. Usually, linkages between organization performance and executive leadership appear on a daily or quarterly basis, which illustrates the need for preparation and readiness.

Developing a personal leadership plan may provide benefits to your organization, other leaders, and one’s subordinates, for example, is another suggestion one will find during a search. Other points include how to garner trust while attempting to implement change all the while avoiding as many pitfalls as possible during those processes. Still others mention the importance of acquiring, interpreting, and using information whether it originates from inside or outside the organization. Embedded with all those suggestions, recommendations, and anecdotes are strands of theory intertwined with strands of reality. In essence, leaders will likely serve themselves and others well by combining the best that theory and practice have to offer. Obviously, this will take a considerable amount of time to navigate the work, readings, and conversations. However, an acceleration of those processes often begins with some initial guidance that theoretical frameworks afford.

Whether experience or education is the best teacher, a need for outcomes assessment seems to exist. Assessment may take the form of using three basic steps and asking specific questions.

• First, there is a need for direct observation that compares learning outcomes and objectives as stated on paper to the contents of seminars and assignments. Did teaching occur?
• Second, examinations of participant portfolios over time will allow the teacher and the learner to see progress and to enhance self-awareness. Did feedback occur?
• Lastly, follow-up via open-ended questions may reveal individual outcomes providing at the least some anecdotal evidence of learning. Did teaching and learning occur? Some leadership scholars contend that leaders reach their pinnacle by acting in accordance with their values and intuitions.

A large portion of leadership is a function of the specific time in which we live and the opportunities that present themselves. In conclusion, this essay on executive leadership is time-bound as well though it aims to help readers recognize the requirements for leadership. It closes with a list of challenges. Prospective leaders need to:

• Gain an understanding of personal strengths and weaknesses.
• Assure their possession of various traits and qualities; build the capacity to become whatever type of leader and to use any type of style that an organization needs at a given time.
• Hold an interest in honing communication and other essential skills.
• Develop a dual desire to locate a mentor and to become a protégé.
• Invoke a constant search for opportunities to practice leadership.

In closing, readers who want to improve their leadership abilities will most likely need to enroll in a variety of courses, workshops, and seminars and work toward convening their own as an instructor.

Terms & Concepts

Effectiveness: The degree to which an organization achieves its goals, satisfies its purpose, and/or meets external demands.

Efficacy: The act of being efficient and effective.

Efficiency: The extent to which an organization minimizes its average costs, expands worker output holding costs constant, or simplifies tasks or decisions and makes them routine.

Executive Leadership: Occurs when the joint actions of a chief executive and the organization's board members lead to successful resource acquisitions, mission accomplishments, and external affairs.

Organization: A group of individuals who band together to serve a common purpose, collectively enhancing the opportunities for growth, stability, and survival.

Leaders: Persons who focus on doing the right thing above all else.

Managers: Persons who focus on doing things right above all else.

POS-D-CORB: An abbreviation that summarizes Barnard's executive functions—planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, and budgeting.

Servant Leadership: A perspective emphasizing service and originating with Greenleaf in which servant-leaders are those who place the interests of followers ahead of their own.

Service Learning: A form of community service in which students learn some leadership skills.

Transactional Leadership: A perspective emphasizing worker involvement in routine transactions to promote organization performance and results in the short term.

Transformative Leadership: A perspective emphasizing worker movement toward the future consistent with a vision whether formed by someone with authority or by the community at-large.

Bibliography

Barnard, Chester I. (1968). The functions of the executive. Harvard University Press.

Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. Free Press

Bass, B. M. & Avolio, B. J. (1990). The multifactor leadership questionnaire. Consulting Pyschologists Press.

Burckbuchler, M. (2022, July 26). What is executive leadership, and why is it so important? Vanderbilt Business School. Retrieved May 30, 2023, from https://business.vanderbilt.edu/news/2021/12/08/what-is-executive-leadership-and-why-is-it-so-important

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. Harper & Row.

Chun-Yao, T., Zong-Jhe, W., & Chun-Yi, L. (2013). Corporate governance and innovation ability. International Business Research, 6, 70-78. Retrieved November 22, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=89231988&site=ehost-live

Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). Servant Leadership. Paulist Press

Herman, R. D. & Heimovics, D. (2016). Executive leadership. In Herman, R. D. & Associates' The Jossey-Bass Handbook of Nonprofit Leadership & Management (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Judge, T.A. & Piccolo, R.F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), 755–768. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.755

Pansoo, K., & Jang-Hyup, H. (2013). Effects of job satisfaction on service quality, customer satisfaction, and customer loyalty: The case of a local state-owned enterprise. WSEAS Transactions on Business & Economics, 10, 49-68. Retrieved November 22, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=88117275&site=ehost-live

McClesky, J. A. (2014). Situational, transformational, and transactional leadership and leadership development. Journal of Business Studies Quarterly, 5, 117–130. Retrieved November 17, 2014, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=96783710

Rao, M. S. (2014). Transformational leadership: An academic case study. Industrial and Commercial Training, 46, 150–154. Retrieved November 17, 2014, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=95891807

Washington, R. (2007). Empirical relationships between theories of servant, transformational, and transactional leadership. Academy of Management Proceedings, 1-6. Retrieved November 21, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=26509311&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Allio, R. (2007). Band leaders: How they get that way and what to do about it. Strategy & Leadership, 35, 12-17. Retrieved November 18, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=25609277&site=ehost-live

Antonakis, J., & House, R. J. (2014). Instrumental leadership: Measurement and extension of the transformational-transactional leadership theory. Leadership Quarterly, 25, 746–71. Retrieved November 17, 2014, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=96660745

Burke, R. (2006). Why leaders fail: Exploring the darkside. International Journal of Manpower, 27, 91-100. Retrieved November 18, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=21556926&site=ehost-live

Chandran, Jay P. (nd). The relevance of Chester Barnard for today's manager. Retrieved November 14, 2007, from http://www.telelavoro.rassegna.it/fad/socorg03/l4/barnard.pdf

Choi, J., & Wang, H. (2007). The promise of a managerial values approach to corporate philanthropy. Journal of Business Ethics, 75, 345-359. Retrieved November 12, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=26691059&site=ehost-live

Day, D. V. & Lord, R. G. (1988). Executive leadership and organization performance: Suggestions for a new theory and methodology. Journal of Management, 14(3), 453–464. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920638801400308

Epstein, M. J., & McFarlan, F. (2011). Measuring the efficiency and effectiveness of a nonprofit's performance. Strategic Finance, 93, 27-34. Retrieved November 26, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=66447413&site=ehost-live

Hackman, J., & Wageman, R. (2007). Asking the right questions about leadership. American Psychologist, 62, 43-47. Retrieved November 18, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=23745897&site=ehost-live

Lakshman, C. (2005). Top executive knowledge leadership: Managing knowledge to lead change at General Electric. Journal of Change Management, 5, 429-446. Retrieved November 12, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=19302077&site=ehost-live

Maak, T. (2007). Responsible leadership, stakeholder engagement, and the emergence of social capital. Journal of Business Ethics, 74, 329-343. Retrieved November 18, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=26210817&site=ehost-live

Tonidandel, S., Avery, D., & Phillips, M. (2007). Maximizing returns on mentoring: Factors affecting subsequent protégé performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28, 89-110. Retrieved November 12, 2007, from EBCSCO Online Database Business Source Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=23463959&site=ehost-live