Networking

Networking refers to the process of establishing and nurturing professional relationships to exchange information, resources, and support. It plays a crucial role in career development and can facilitate opportunities for collaboration, mentorship, and knowledge sharing across various industries. Effective networking can occur through formal events, such as conferences and workshops, or informal settings, such as social gatherings and online platforms.

In today's digital age, networking has expanded to include online communities and social media, allowing individuals to connect globally and build diverse professional networks. Different cultures may approach networking differently, with varying expectations around relationship-building and communication styles. Understanding these nuances can enhance the effectiveness of networking efforts. Ultimately, networking is not just about transactional exchanges but also about fostering genuine connections that can lead to mutual growth and success.

Published in: 2021

By: Wienclaw, Ruth A.

Subject Terms

Networking

Abstract

Networks have become an integral part of most lives in the modern world of the twenty-first century. There are several types of networks used for communications and information sharing including local area, metropolitan area, and wide area networks. Every network is linked through communications channels that may be physical channels (e.g., copper or fiber optic cables) or wireless channels (i.e., radio waves). In addition, networks can be structured in a number of different ways through various architectures that determine how the various components interact and cooperate. Networks have many applications for twenty-first-century businesses. General applications of networking include transmitting and receiving messages or documents electronically, data communications, providing an infrastructure for holding virtual meetings with participants who are geographically dispersed, and electronic commerce.

Overview

Networks have become an integral part of most lives in the modern world of the twenty-first century. For example, e-mail has become the standard mode of communication in many situations, and businesses send not only messages but documents, pictures, and audio/visual clips across the office and around the world with ease. In addition, the majority of consumers now count on the Internet to compare and purchase goods and services rather than go to a physical storefront. Social media sites, such as Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn, have become important parts of expanding contacts and reaching out to a wider range of individuals all over the world. People not only use networking capabilities at home and at work but also take their laptops and smartphones with them on vacation, feeling adrift at the thought of not being able to keep in touch almost instantaneously. However, networks have other applications as well. In the workplace, networks enable employees to coordinate their activities and to share data, information, and documents in an effort to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. This ability to share data and information quickly and accurately is increasingly essential to the success of businesses. Particularly as increasing numbers of businesses become active in the global marketplace, networks are becoming integral to work.

Types of Networks. Networks are sets of computers that are electronically linked together. Communications networks are sets of locations (or nodes) with concomitant hardware, software, and information that are linked together to form a system that transmits and receives information. There are several types of networks used for communications and information sharing. Local area networks link multiple local computers to each other and various peripheral devices. Metropolitan area networks link computers over citywide distances at higher speeds than local area networks. Wide area networks link multiple computers that are widely dispersed and use high-speed, long-distance communications networks or satellites to transmit and receive data.

Local Area Networks A local area network consists of multiple desktop computers located near each other that link into a network. These networks are used to connect computers in an office or series of offices and span distances from a few hundred feet to a few miles. A local area network allows users to share files and peripheral devices such as printers, fax machines, or storage devices. The computers linked into the network are also referred to as workstations, clients, or nodes. They are connected to a server—a host computer for the network that provides services to the clients. The server typically has more storage capacity and can process at higher speeds than the client computers. Cloud computing allows companies to use space on an external server, maintained by a provider, for both file storage and to deliver applications (Yang & Jia, 2013).
Metropolitan Area Networks Metropolitan area networks transmit data and information citywide (up to 30 miles) and at greater speeds than a local area network. These networks are optimized for both voice and data transmissions and can, therefore, carry more forms of data than can be carried over local area networks, including voice, data, image, and video data. Metropolitan area networks typically operate over a city-wide network of fiber optic cables. These networks enable the metropolitan area network to provide high quality multimedia transmissions at higher speeds than is possible over local area networks.
Wide Area Networks Wide area networks comprise multiple computers that are widely dispersed and that are linked into a network. These networks typically use high-speed, long-distance communications networks or satellites to connect the computers within the network. Wide area networks can be used for a variety of applications, particularly when the client computers that need to be networked are at a distance from each other. For example, a retail chain may use a wide area network to connect its stores across the country or across the world, allowing them to share inventory and sales data and to send e-mail messages to each other. These networks can also be used to connect computerized cash registers that can be used to collect and transmit sales data at each location and transmit them to the company's corporate headquarters as part of the closing procedure each day.

Wide area networks use services provided by a common carrier—a company that provides public communications transmission services. The speed at which the data are transmitted over the network is determined by the bandwidth. The higher the bandwidth of a transmission, the more quickly data can be transferred within the network. Bandwidth is expressed in thousands of bits of information per second (kbps), millions of bits per second (mbps), or billions of bits per second (gbps). On a more practical level, a typical page of typed correspondence contains approximately 275 words, which translates to 2,000 bytes or 16,000 bits of information. Transferring this amount of data over a 56 kbps modem takes approximately 0.28 seconds; transferring the same page over a high speed network transmitting at 1.544 mbps, however, only takes approximately 0.01 seconds. Although this may seem to be a small difference, business documents are frequently significantly longer than one page. So, for example, transmission of a 600-page document at 2400 Bps would take nearly two hours, at 56,000 Bps would take only five minutes, and at 1.544 mbps would take only 10.8 seconds. Similarly, higher bandwidths are necessary to transmit video transmissions. Wide area networks sometimes transmit over a T-carrier, a very high-speed channel that connects lower-speed networks or computers at different sites or over fiber optic cables that allow even faster data transmission.

Network Channels. No matter the type, networks are linked through communications channels (also referred to as network media). These channels may be physical channels (e.g., copper or fiber optic cables) or wireless channels (i.e., radio waves). There are a number of different types of media used to transmit data. The transmission speeds of some of these channels are given in Table 1.

(from Senn, p. 344)

Physical Communications Channels. There are three basic types of physical communications channels: twisted pair, coaxial, and fiber optic cable. Although these have different characteristics, it is the hardware and software attached to the network that determines the actual speed of transmission. No matter how fast data can be transmitted over the network cables, if the information system on the end of the cable is slow, the actual receipt of the data will be concomitantly slow.

Twisted pair cables are used in telephone wires and are so called because they are made of pairs of copper wire twisted together to form a cable. Twisted pair cable was designed for the transmission of voice and text messages and is considered by information technology specialists to be a voice-grade medium. These channels transmit at a variety of rates ranging from 100 Bps to 100 mbps depending on what the carrier determines is a feasible speed of transmission for the cable.
Coaxial cable is another commonly used cable for networks. This type of cable is made up of one or more central wire conductors surrounded by an insulator and sheathed in wire mesh or metal.
Fiber optic cable uses light from a laser to transmit data, providing the fastest data transmission of the physical network media.

Wireless Communications Channels. In addition to physical network media, various wireless channels are available. Wireless networks use radio waves sent over the open air or through space. Most wireless networks utilize microwaves—high-frequency radio signals—for data transmission. Some wireless networks employ terrestrial stations that use relay towers about 30 miles apart. These stations must be unobstructed and have a clear line between them since microwaves travel in a straight line. Increasingly, wireless transmission is done using satellites. The microwaves are beamed from a terrestrial station to a communications satellite, which in turn relays the signal to another terrestrial station or stations.

Network Architectures. Networks can be structured in a number of different ways through various architectures that determine how the various components interact and cooperate. Network architectures comprise the structure of a communications network, including how the various components are linked, interact, and cooperate. Network architectures may be centralized, distributed, or a combination of the two.

Centralized Architecture In a centralized architecture, the server hosts all of the network's hardware and software, performs all the network's processing, and manages the network from a central site. In this type of architecture, the hardware and software frequently are found in a centralized computer center.
Distributed Architecture In a distributed architecture, on the other hand, the various computers are at different locations and connected by a network. In this type of architecture, an application may run on one or more locations on the network simultaneously. For example, in a retail store with a distributed network, data on individual sales transactions may be automatically transmitted to a distribution center. In addition, the chain's suppliers may also connect using their own networks to monitor inventory in the distribution centers and replenish them as necessary.

Both of these approaches to network architecture have advantages and disadvantages. Centralized systems are easier to manage, but distributed systems keep information where it is most needed. To leverage the advantages of both types of architectures, some enterprises use hybrid systems that combine the strengths of both approaches.

By 2014, a type of networking architecture that had been in various stages of development for several years began coming to the forefront: software-defined networking (SDN). This architecture gives programmers more immediate control over the way data and resources are operated within a network through the separation of the network’s control and forwarding functions (Kirkpatrick, 2013).

Applications

Networks have many applications for twenty-first-century businesses. In general, networks have four roles: transmitting and receiving messages or documents electronically, data communications, providing an infrastructure for holding virtual meetings with participants who are geographically dispersed, and electronic commerce.

Electronic Message Transmission. Perhaps the best-known aspect of networking both in business and personal applications is electronic mail (e-mail). This network service transmits text messages from a sender to one or more recipients. The message is sent over the network and stored on a reserved area of space on a drive in the server or host computer that has been set aside for the recipient. This space is referred to as the recipient's electronic mailbox. The message remains there until it is retrieved by the recipient. When the recipient logs onto his/her e-mail account, the system sends a notification that a new message has been received. The recipient can then retrieve and view the message, store it for later reference, forward it to other recipients, reply to the message, or delete it. E-mail messages can also be broadcast, that is, sent to a number of recipients simultaneously. This capability cuts down on the amount of work that the sender needs to do to get information into the hands of multiple people and also helps provide work groups, teams, and others who need to communicate with current information so that communications and projects can proceed more efficiently. In addition, e-mail enables people to send text and other documents electronically across the network.

Another frequently used application of networking capabilities is voicemail. Whereas e-mail involves the transmission of text messages between a sender and recipients, voicemail involves the transmission of spoken messages. The sender speaks into an ordinary telephone connected to the computer network. The message is then digitized and stored in the recipient's voice mailbox. The recipient can retrieve the message using his/her phone. The message is then reconverted to an analog voice message and relayed to the recipient. Voice messages can be stored, replayed, or broadcast to multiple recipients.

Data Communications: Electronic Data Interchange. Networks can also facilitate the flow of money and other data between businesses or between customers and businesses. Electronic data interchange is a standard format that is used to exchange business data such as price or product identification number. Electronic data interchange technology is particularly important for facilitating international commerce where paperwork required for international trade creates costs of up to 7 percent of the value of the items being traded. With electronic data interchange technology, shippers, carriers, customs agents, and customers all can send and receive documents through electronic funds transfer, thereby saving both time and money for international transactions.

Electronic Funds Transfer. A similar network service is electronic funds transfer—the electronic movement of money over a communications network is called electronic funds transfer. This service increasingly affects financial transactions. Credit card transactions are settled by electronic funds transfer between the user and the issuer of the credit card and payroll checks, government support checks, and other deposits can be deposited by electronic funds transfer. Because of such technologies, the Internet is also used for e-commerce to buy and sell goods or services—including products and information retrieval services—electronically rather than through conventional means.

Virtual Meeting Capabilities. Another service that can be provided by networks is videoconferencing. This service provides live two-way audio and video transmissions over the network. Through videoconferencing, people who are geographically dispersed can meet together and participate in a meeting without the inconvenience or expense of travel. Video conferencing is much more than a simple audio/visual hookup, however. Through the use of the network, meeting participants can share documents, images, and even product demonstrations. Information can be retrieved from a central database (a collection of data items used for multiple purposes and which is stored on a computer) and simultaneously shared with all conference participants. Decentralized meetings can also be facilitated through the use of networks even without the audio hookup. In teleconferencing, meeting participants at different sites communicate with each other through the telephone. They use the network to share documents and other information through an electronic bulletin board in near real time. Networks can also allow participants to use presentation software just as in a face-to-face meeting.

Electronic Commerce. The use of networks to support business is not only concerned with internal or business-to-business applications, however. E-commerce (i.e., electronic commerce) is the process of conducting of business online through such transactions as sales and information exchange. One common application of e-commerce is online retailing and electronic storefronts as supported by networks. Customers visit a business's website on the Internet and examine product pictures and information, compare different products, fill an electronic shopping cart, and checkout and pay for their purchases in much the same way that they would in a brick-and-mortar store. Another network application of e-commerce is the electronic market. This is a collection of individual shops that can be accessed through a single location on the Internet that are the virtual equivalent of shopping malls. The use of networks to support e-commerce offers many benefits to businesses. First, businesses are able to extend their geographic reach and literally reach potential customers around the globe without setting up operations in other locations. E-commerce can facilitate selling to a larger market as well as increasing the speed at which transactions can take place. The networking capabilities of e-commerce also enable customers to make better informed decisions in a more timely manner, thereby helping the business's cash flow and saving the customer time.

Terms and Concepts

Architecture: The structure of a communications network, including how the various components are linked, interact, and cooperate. Network architectures may be centralized, distributed, or a combination of the two. An emerging architecture, software-defined networking (SDN), gives more control of these functions to the programmer.

Bandwidth: The data transfer rate, or the amount of data that can be transmitted within a given time period. The higher the bandwidth of a transmission, the higher the transfer rate. Bandwidth is expressed in thousands of bits of information per second (kbps), millions of bits per second (mbps), or billions of bits per second (gbps).

Communication: The transmission and receipt of data and information over a linked set of hardware and software at multiple locations.

Communications Channel: A communications channel (sometimes called a communications medium) can be a physical or cableless medium that links the components of a network.

Communications Network: Sets of locations (or nodes) with concomitant hardware, software, and information that are linked together to form a system that transmits and receives information.

Data Communications: The sending and receiving of facts, figures, details, and other information over a communications network.

E-Commerce: E-commerce (i.e., electronic commerce) is the process of buying and selling goods or services—including information products and information retrieval services—electronically rather than through conventional means. E-commerce is typically conducted over the Internet.

Information Technology: The use of computers, communications networks, and knowledge in the creation, storage, and dispersal of data and information. Information technology comprises a wide range of items and abilities for use in the creation, storage, and distribution of information.

Local Area Network (LAN): Multiple computers that are located near each other and linked into a network that allows the users to share files and peripheral devices such as printers, fax machines, and storage devices.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Computer networks that transmit data and information citywide and at greater speeds than a local area network.

Network: A set of computers that are electronically linked together.

Server: The computer that hosts a network and provides services to the other computers in the network (e.g., a web serve serves up web pages). The term server is also used to refer to the software running on the server computer.

Wide Area Network (WAN): Multiple computers that are widely dispersed and that are linked into a network. Wide area networks typically use high speed, long distance communications networks or satellites to connect the computers within the network.

Wireless Communications System: A communication system that transmits data using radio signals over the air or through space as opposed to through wire or optical cables.

Workstation: A desktop computer that is connected to a network. Workstations are also sometimes referred to as clients or nodes.

Bibliography

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Networking

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Subject Terms

Networking

Abstract

Overview

Applications

Terms and Concepts

Bibliography

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