Systems Analysis and Design: Creating the Systems that Support Strategic Plans

Systems analysis and design (SA&D) is an important process that creates information systems that support strategic organizational objectives. SA&D skills are important and a critical component of technology education. Most systems analysis and design skills are introduced during the educational process and fine-tuned with on-the-job experience. Systems education initially emphasized the technical portion of SA&D skills and now incorporates more interpersonal and planning skills. The goal of systems analysis and design is to make business processes more efficient and effective by improving the design and function of computer systems that drive and support business processes. Systems analysts usually perform the functions related to systems analysis and design and turn user requirements into technology implementations. Analysts must also determine the feasibility of implementing user requirements. Analysts use interviewing techniques and questionnaires to query users and use flow charts and data diagrams to begin to map systems. Over time, various models have been used to conduct the systems analysis and design process. More recently, analysts may opt to use a combination of proven models to provide the best result for a particular organization's needs (Siau & Rossi, 2011).

Keywords Systems Analyst; Systems Analysis and Design; Systems Development; Systems Development Life Cycle

Information Technology > Systems Analysis & Design

Overview

Systems analysis and design requires understanding the role of the systems analyst and reviewing the process of developing systems. Avison, Cole & Fitzgerald (2006) note "The process of developing and maintaining information systems is the main role of IS people in practice." The process of developing computer systems requires specific skills and abilities. Analysts learn these skills by studying systems analysis and design. Systems analysts look for ways to apply technology to the strategic goals of an organization. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (2006) states that analysts "solve computer problems and apply computer technology to meet the individual needs of an organization. They help an organization to realize the maximum benefit from its investment in equipment, personnel, and business processes." Developing information systems must follow a logical pattern, format or discipline to be completed in a predictable fashion (Avison et. al., 2006).

An information system is short for computer-based information system and is the combination of hardware, software, human resources, telecommunications, databases, policies and procedures organizations use in combination to convert data into useful business information (Stair & Reynolds, 2001). The components of an information system include input of raw data, processing (which is manipulating data), output (which involves generating useful information or reports from the system) and feedback (which allows an opportunity to make changes in input and processing or to correct errors) (Stair & Reynolds, 2001).

Stair & Reynolds (2001) discuss how a strategic plan for an organization drives the systems that run an organization. When information systems projects are identified, the projects develop from a combination of the objectives of a strategic plan and systems projects that remain unfinished or appear as an unexpected need. Information systems planning stems from the strategic plan and yields activities and plans for systems development.

There is a process called the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) which guides the process of systems development in an organization. There are several steps in the process (Stair & Reynolds, 2001):

  • Systems investigation
  • Systems analysis
  • Systems design
  • Systems implementation
  • Systems maintenance and review.

The process begins with understanding what problems exist (investigation phase) and then understanding the solution (analysis phase). After analyzing what should happen, the design phase involves planning the best solution. After the planning or systems development phase, implementation occurs. Once the system is implemented, it is evaluated to ensure that it is consistent with the original goals that were the drivers of the solution in the first place.

Stair and Reynolds define four different approaches or ways to develop new systems including:

  • Traditional
  • Prototyping
  • Rapid application development (RAD) and
  • End user development

The traditional method of developing systems simply uses the steps of the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) while prototyping continuously creates prototype or demonstration systems that can be analyzed and evaluated until a satisfactory final version is achieved. Rapid application development is a method of speeding up the development process through automation and reduction of documentation. Finally, end user development is weighted heavily with participation in development from business managers and end users. Goda Software (2005) confirms "any single process is not universally applicable for all projects in an organization." Systems analysts need to be informed and aware of various approaches and techniques because of the need to vary approaches by project.

Systems analysis and design (SA&D) skills are deemed critical to organizations. McGee (2006) quotes a Society for Information Management survey of IT managers where over 60% stated that it was imperative to keep important systems analysis and design skills in-house. SA&D skills are so important that they make up an important part of technology and business education. Batra & Satzinger (2006) have proposed fundamental changes to SA&D education to allow for changes in technology including trending towards Web technologies and necessary changes in approaches used in the real world. Currently, Batra & Satzinger (2006) observe that many organizations are using development methods that are not pure in type but more of a "hybrid or customized" approach.

TechWeb.com (2007) defines systems analysis and design as:

"The examination of a problem and the creation of its solution. Systems analysis is effective when all sides of the problem are reviewed. Systems design is most effective when more than one solution can be proposed."

Systems analysts must be skilled in the analysis and design process but also possess an objective view and open attitude towards considering multiple possibilities. The entry of end-users in the design process may also force systems analysts to think critically about the tendency to take traditional approaches because the traditional is familiar. Although systems analysts are key players in analyzing and designing systems, all organization members are impacted and affected by the design and analysis of the systems that run the organization's business processes. Significant project planning and preparation is necessary before the analysis and design phases begin. Some organizations have a specific project planning methodology that is used for systems development. Approaches to project management can evolve based on internal skill and needs.

Kendall & Kendall (2005) call systems analysis and design a "systematic and complex endeavor." The process is systematic in that it follows a predictable path, but follows the path in a creative way. Systems analysis and design is complex because it delves deep into the business processes of an organization. Sometimes these process have been accurately documented but other times, the process may not be accurately documented nor the reasons why modifications might have been made. Inaccurate processes can lead to wasted effort and outputs that are unusable or unnecessary.

The Relationship Between Organizational Knowledge & Systems Analysis & Design

Bera, Nevo & Wand (2005) state "Organizations analyze their business processes in order to improve them." Improvements can be driven by the inefficiencies of existing systems, a need to meet a new customer demand, requirements to reduce the cost to maintain a system or increase system functionality. The actual processes that systems development seeks to improve contain substantial, important information and often, that information is not captured as the systems are modified (Bera et. al., 2005).

Bera et. al. (2005, p. 814) identified knowledge as a key organizational asset that provides competitive advantage and should be captured as systems and processes are analyzed. The authors describe a process called "Knowledge Requirements Analysis" (KRA) that specifically calls for identifying the organizational knowledge contained in processes while also analyzing from a process perspective. By looking at knowledge contained in business processes, companies can easily see where information needs to be refined, is inaccurate or is not being shared. Knowledge is connected to business processes either as being generated from the process or as the knowledge that makes up the process and how information is routed. The ability to execute strategic plans through systems is dependent upon an organization's ability to identify, use, reuse and repurpose knowledge.

The process of systems analysis and design should not begin without making sure that knowledge management is an integral part of the actual processes. The problem that organizations have is how to select one way to manage both the processes and knowledge (Bera et. al., 2005). When organizations conduct a Knowledge Requirements Analysis of a business process such as processing an order, there are six steps (Bera et. al, 2005):

  • Identify and map organizational processes and any related activities
  • List and breakdown the activities identified in the processes
  • Identify which activities are knowledge intensive or knowledge producing
  • Prioritize the activities based on the organization's knowledge management objectives and strategic plans
  • Identify knowledge gaps, deficiencies or other areas for improvement
  • Redesign activities and the associated process

An obvious benefit of deploying a knowledge management approach to analyzing processes is greater understanding of existing knowledge and greater accountability for its use. The drawbacks include the fact that examining processes for knowledge may take time and slow down process analysis. The knowledge management activities may also distract from the goal of improving the process. Companies may choose to only evaluate knowledge at a high level or deploy a separate team, if possible, to grapple with knowledge issues. Another possible problem could be the subjective nature of evaluating knowledge, its relative value and use (Bera et. al., 2005). Users throughout the organization may vary in opinions and may or may not be included in the Knowledge Requirements Analysis (KRA) process.

Teaching & Learning Systems Analysis & Design

Batra & Satzinger (2006, p.260) suggest five possible approaches to teaching systems analysis and design. One approach would allow systems analysis and systems design to be divided in technology education to ensure that the appropriate skills for each phase are provided enough focus and time. Batra & Satzinger view a first course in systems analysis as covering the following key topics including:

  • SDLC (systems development life cycle)
  • Project management
  • Defining the system vision
  • Defining the functional and non-functional requirements.

The key components of a design course (suggested to follow an analysis course) include coverage of:

  • Detailed design
  • Implementation

• Testing

• Support

The value of dividing the analysis and design courses is that a clear line can be drawn as to what each includes and how each is used. The drawback is that limited time may be spent on the ability to compare, contrast and note the overlap of the processes and the skills used. Most approaches to systems development do not really separate the two functions as both may overlap or occur simultaneously.

A second approach offered by Batra & Satzinger (2006) would emphasize the systems development life cycle (SDLC) to illustrate an approach to analysis and design. A third method would focus on project management. A fourth approach would emphasize the enterprise architectural layers to introduce how requirements are defined and allow participants to actually use analysis and design processes while learning the various architectural layers. Because systems design and analysis has become more complex over time, there are challenges in determining what concepts should be emphasized when teaching (Batra & Satzinger, 2006). A final approach aligns analysis and design concepts in an iterative fashion, carefully placing courses in concert with other information technology coursework that provides specific skills such as database and programming courses. Iiveri, Parsons & Hevner (2005) lament the mismatch of programming courses with design courses and suggest better integration of curriculum.

Harris, Lang, Oates & Siau (2006) suggest "if you were to assemble 50 IS professors into one room, you would likely end up with 50 different opinions about how to best teach SA&D." Whatever approach selected by universities and technical schools, Kendall & Kendall (2005) note that systems analysis and design "demands an entire spectrum of skills, ranging from computer programming to effective interpersonal skills."

Viewpoint

Systems Analysis & Design Skills

In order to be successful in systems analysis and design, systems analysts need a solid technology foundation. Part of a solid technology background includes understanding what systems can be used by decision makers including decision support systems, executive information systems, expert systems and geographic information systems (Forgionne, 2005). Thomas and de Villiers (2002) note that the rapid changes in systems development have increased the demands for advanced skills beyond technology. There is common agreement that successful systems analysis and design skills must be an integral part of the thinking of technology and business professionals before becoming engaged in an actual project. However, there is no exact formula that describes or measures exactly how much of each key skill will be needed. There is no uniform way to impart knowledge to those involved in analysis and design (Alter, 2006).

Usually, project team members will vary in their degree of skill in understanding technology, analysis and design processes, critical thinking and interpersonal communication. Analytical skills can take a creative turn with some workers while others armed with the same knowledge perform tasks the same way in every situation. Flexibility is most often learned by example and educational programs must take care to show many examples that demonstrate a variety of effective ways to approach a problem. Thomas & de Villiers (2002) quote a survey in which employers stated that "general thinking, communication and interpersonal skills were considered to be the most important characteristics needed by an IS graduate."

Communication is one of the most important skills needed to effectively analyze and design systems. Alter (2006) finds that most business and IT professionals, regardless of experience level, have a problem communicating information about systems. Alter noted whether describing, analyzing or evaluating systems, professionals have trouble communicating especially across business and functional lines. Because business professionals often speak in business terms and not technology terms, there is difficulty in communicating with technology professionals. Similarly, technology professionals may not be able to translate technical jargon in a manner that is helpful to business professionals. Because professionals may not be on the same page, organizations may find it difficult to get a clear definition of problems and issues, a comprehensive definition of system requirements or a clear implementation plan (Alter, 2006).

Thomas & de Villiers (2002) state "Employers want IS graduates who can think, communicate and work well with others." Other key important attributes are a solid foundation in systems analysis and design and database concepts. Most employers want basic technology skills to already be a part of a worker's arsenal so an investment does not have to be made in critical intensive knowledge. Since the bar is set high for solid skills even for new graduates, students have to look for opportunities to get hands-on experience and instructors have to model real world techniques and scenarios in class assignments.

Alter suggests changing the way professionals think about systems to improve the communication and performance of implementation teams. If professionals begin to think in terms of the work the system does that is being created or improved, it is more likely that each team member will have similar definitions of key project components. Alter's method requires defining a system in terms of nine specific elements that are common to any system. The nine components are:

  • Work practices
  • Participants
  • Information
  • Technology
  • Products and Services Produced
  • Customers
  • Environment
  • Infrastructure
  • Strategy

Alter (2006) analyzed MBA papers in a class of working professionals to identify "pitfalls" in analyzing systems after the class participants had been trained in viewing systems in terms of the nine components listed above. The results indicated nine specific pitfalls by working professionals including:

  • Failure to define the system
  • Viewing technology as the system instead of the work the system actually did
  • Confusion of the system in operation versus set-up
  • Inability to identify the information used or generated by the system
  • Strong reluctance to use performance measurements
  • Strong reluctance to identify organizational and personal problems
  • Leaning toward internal and technical jargon
  • A lack of critical thinking or the ability to apply critical thinking in clarifying issues
  • Inability to apply classroom, abstract models for systems analysis to the real world

Alter suggests that technology education, especially at the MBA level must be modified to include more examples of typical pitfalls to give students hands-on opportunities to work through these problems. Avison, Cole & Fitzgerald (2006) found that training on the job is the most effective way of delivering systems analysis and design skills because of the ability to customize the training to a real world situation, a common drawback missing in traditional education. Avison et. al. (2006) suggest that educational programs focus on high level conceptual and problem solving skills that will be useful regardless of the real world situation and how systems analysis and design practices may change over time. Case studies are one method of bringing real world scenarios into the classroom (Sankaran & Wedel, 2012; Spears & Parrish, 2013).

Batra & Satzinger (2006) suggest that technology education in systems analysis and design be modified to place more emphasis on agile development. Agile development means that development occurs in short bursts and the feedback resulting from each development iteration is the guide rather than a static plan for development. The result should be more dynamic development and in education and more flexibility on the part of the learner. Agile development also requires participants to interact more, thus enhancing communication abilities (Batra & Satzinger, 2006).

Roles in Systems Development

The systems analyst must possess superior technical and communication skills. Superior technical skills are needed because of the need to understand the types of systems that are being created, modified or enhanced. Being well grounded in a technical understanding of the various types of information systems provides a solid foundation for manipulating systems. Communication skills are needed to effectively communicate the system purpose, the path of change and the benefits of system features and functions.

The systems analyst must function as a consultant that can help end users decide what is wanted versus what is needed. Analysts must lead the discussions related to cost and time for systems delivery. As a consultant, analysts help end users balance tradeoffs and determine return on investment. Systems analysts will often function as the technical expert even when external consultants, systems integrators or product specialists are used. Internal systems analysts control the development of systems to ensure congruency with organizational objectives. Nance (2005) suggests that the internal versus external use of skills can be important when deciding to purchase software or develop it internally. If developed internally by company programmers, the systems analysis phase identifies key systems requirements that guide the programmers as they "write, test and debug" code.

Systems analysts also function as change agents. Modification of systems and the development of new systems often involve change. Changes can range from end user processes, access and training to how technology professionals maintain systems. The systems analyst is often the proponent of change to support standards and greater accountability within organizations. The change agent has to be well versed in reasoning and justification skills with a unique ability to help ease the impact of change. Prototyping can give the systems analyst the opportunity to evaluate proposed changes without creating a scenario that negatively impacts end user productivity.

Systems analysts also play the role of evaluator and must be able to give organization decision-makers accurate assessments of systems development activities for planning and budgeting purposes. Objectivity is essential in that it can be difficult to be critical of specific actions taken once a tough implementation is completed. The criticism of a technology system implementation may identify errors in judgment on the part of the systems analyst but can provide important input into future implementations. Alter (2006) points to a Standish Group study that noted less than one-third of systems projects are successful. Without analyzing what goes wrong with the SA&D process, systems projects will continue to fail.

Terms & Concepts

Information System: A set of interrelated components that collect, manipulate, and disseminate data and information and provide a feedback mechanism to meet an objective.

Information Systems Planning: Translating strategic plans into systems development activities.

Input: The activity of gathering and capturing raw data.

Output: Production of useful information, usually in the form of documents and reports.

Systems Analysis and Design: Analyzing current systems for strengths, weaknesses and areas of improvement.

Systems Analyst: Technology professionals responsible for systems development activities.

Systems Development Life Cycle: A traditional method for developing new information systems.

Systems Development Methodology: A process organizations use to analyze, design, implement and maintain systems.

Bibliography

Alter, S. (2006). Pitfalls in analyzing systems in organizations. Journal of Information Systems Education,17, 295-302. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=23435524&site=bsi-live

Avison, D., Cole, M. & Fitzgerald, G. (2006). Reflections on teaching information systems analysis and design: From then to now! Journal of Information Systems Education, 17, 253-256. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=23435519&site=bsi-live

Batra, D. & Satzinger, J. W. (2006). Contemporary approaches and techniques for the systems analyst. Journal of Information Systems Education, 17, 257-265. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=23435520&site=bsi-live

Bera, P., Nevo, D. & Wand, Y. (2005). Special theme of research in information systems analysis and design — I Unraveling knowledge requirements through business process analysis. Communications of AIS, 2005, 814-830. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=19323600&site=bsi-live

Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2006). Occupational Outlook Handbook Retrieved April 6, 2007, from http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos287.htm

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Goda Software. (2005).The development process made easy. [White Paper]. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from http://whitepapers.techrepublic.com.com/whitepaper.aspx?docid=142788.

Harris, A. L., Lang, M., Oates, B. & Siau, K. (2006). Systems analysis & design: An essential part of IS education. Journal of Information Systems Education, 17, 241 - 248. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=23435517&site=bsi-live

Iivari, J., Parsons, J. & Hevner, A. (2005). Research in information systems analysis and design: Introduction to the special theme papers. Communications of AIS,2005, 810-813. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=19323599&site=bsi-live

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Kendall, K. E. & Kendall, J.E. (2005). Systems analysis and design. Blackwell Encyclopedic Dictionary of Management Information Systems, 1 - 323. Blackwell Publishing, Ltd. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=14841509&site=bsi-live

McGee, M. K. (2006). Skills that will matter. InformationWeek, 1070, 53. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=19925540&site=bsi-live

Nance, W.D. (2005). Make or buy software. Blackwell Encyclopedic Dictionary of Management Information Systems, 1-208. Blackwell Publishing, Ltd. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=14841448&site=bsi-live

Sankaran, S., & Wedel, T.L. (2012). Directors Guild of America health plan eligibility: An IS analysis and design case. Journal of Information Systems Education, 23, 129-132. Retrieved October 31, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=82250384&site=ehost-live

Siau, K., & Rossi, M. (2011). Evaluation techniques for systems analysis and design modelling methods - a review and comparative analysis. Information Systems Journal, 21, 249-268. Retrieved October 31, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=59813477&site=ehost-live

Spears, J.L., & Parrish Jr., J.L. (2013). IS security requirements identification from conceptual models in systems analysis and design: The Fun & Fitness, Inc. case. Journal of Information Systems Education, 24, 17-29. Retrieved October 31, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=90605112&site=ehost-live

Stair, R. M. & Reynolds, G. (2001). Fundamentals of information systems. Boston, MA: Course Technology.

TechWeb.com. (2007) Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 6, 2007 from http://www.techweb.com/encyclopedia/defineterm.jhtml?term=systems+analysis+%26+design.

Thomas, T. & de Villiers, C. (2002). Learning the skills of systems analysis and design: using JAD and co-operative learning techniques, 209 - 216. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from http://www.ifip.org/con2000/iceut2000/iceut07-01.pdf.

Suggested Reading

The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) is an international research organization located in Austria. (http://www.iiasa.ac.at/). Provides research on new technologies.

Society for Information Management is a professional organization for IT professionals. http://www.simnet.org.

The Institute for the Management of Information Systems (IMIS) is an international professional association devoted to supporting and promoting the profession of information systems management. http://www.imis.org.uk.

Project management resources from Microsoft: http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/powerpoint/CH010951501033.aspx.

Project management software resources from Ziff-Davis UK: http://downloads.zdnet.co.uk/0,1000000375,39292708s,00.htm.

The Agile Manifesto: http://www.agilemanifesto.org/. A repository of information about the agile approach to developing software.

Essay by Marlanda English, Ph.D.

Dr. Marlanda English is president of ECS Consulting Associates which provides executive coaching and management consulting services. ECS also provides online professional development content. Dr. English was previously employed in various engineering, marketing and management positions with IBM, American Airlines, Borg-Warner Automotive and Johnson & Johnson. Dr. English holds a doctorate in business with a major in organization and management and a specialization in e-business.