Apocalypse (religious)
In religious contexts, an apocalypse refers to a prophetic narrative concerning cataclysmic events often linked to the end of the world. The concept has ancient roots, with some of the earliest descriptions appearing over two millennia ago in Mesopotamia. The idea of an apocalypse significantly influenced Jewish and early Christian beliefs, where it is characterized by vivid symbolic imagery representing divine justice and the ultimate return of God. Prominent examples in these traditions include the Book of Daniel in Judaism and the Book of Revelation in Christianity, both of which depict dramatic visions of the end times and God's judgment.
Other religious traditions also encompass apocalyptic themes. In Hinduism, the deity Vishnu is expected to return during a time of moral decay to initiate a cycle of destruction and rebirth. Meanwhile, Norse mythology describes Ragnarök, a final battle that leads to the world's destruction followed by renewal. Islamic apocalyptic narratives share similar elements, including the return of Jesus (known as Isa), who will defeat chaos brought by the Dajjal and restore peace. This diverse array of beliefs illustrates the profound significance of apocalyptic narratives across cultures, offering insights into how humanity contemplates the fate of the world and divine intervention.
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Apocalypse (religious)
An apocalypse in the religious sense is a prophetic account of cataclysmic events usually associated with the end of the world. The earliest descriptions of an apocalypse date back more than two thousand years to ancient Mesopotamia. Jewish religious tradition was heavily influenced by apocalyptic writings and passed those beliefs down to the early Christians. Jewish and Christian apocalyptic accounts are found in both the Old and New Testaments of the Bible and are steeped in symbolic imagery of God's divine justice and his return to earth. Other religions have also developed their own versions of the apocalypse. These range from the Hindu deity Vishnu, who returns to destroy the universe so that it can be reborn, to the Norse Ragnarök, in which the world is consumed in a final battle between gods and giants.
Early history
The term apocalypse comes from the Greek word apokalypsis, meaning "something revealed" or "an unveiling," a reference to the revelation of heavenly knowledge to humankind. Researchers believe the oldest prophetic reference to an apocalypse is contained in a stone tablet from Mesopotamia dating from about 2800 B.C.E. The tablet mentions that the world had fallen into corruption and divine destruction was imminent.
The first religious tradition to incorporate the idea of an apocalypse was Zoroastrianism, a religion that flourished in the Middle East in the first millennium B.C.E. A religious text believed written about 300 B.C.E. tells of the god Ahura Mazda, who reveals to the religion's founder, Zoroaster, that in a future age the sky will be darkened, the earth will be barren, and men will be filled with deceit. During these times of despair, Ahura Mazda will return to destroy evil and reward his followers.
Scholars believe Jewish apocalyptic belief was inspired by Zoroastrian thought and further molded by the subjugation of the Jewish people under the Babylonians and the Greeks. The most notable Jewish apocalyptic work is the Book of Daniel, believed to have been compiled about 165 B.C.E. In the work, Daniel experiences a series of dreams and visions prophesying the end of the world and God's final judgment. These visions are heavily symbolic, with real-life historical people and events hidden in fantastic images of horned beasts and terrifying creatures rising from the sea. After a period of upheaval, God makes his return to earth in glory, punishing the wicked oppressors of the Jewish people and re-establishing his kingdom. Other apocalyptic works, such as the Book of Enoch and Book of Ezekiel, contain similar images and accounts.
Common Era
The early Christians were deeply influenced by the Jewish roots of their faith, and like the Jews, they were also subject to harsh persecutions. The most famous Christian apocalypse, the Book of Revelation, draws heavily on the symbols and imagery found in the Book of Daniel and other Jewish apocalyptic literature. Revelation was written sometime between 68 and 95 C.E. at a time when Christians were being hunted down and executed by the Roman Empire. It was meant to convey a message of hope that Jesus would soon return and save his followers.
Revelation opens with a series of letters written to the seven early Christian churches by its author, a man named John of Patmos. John then begins an account of the last days of the world, as revealed to him by God in a vision. Among the images John is shown are seven sealed scrolls, each unleashing a catastrophe upon earth as they are opened. The first four let loose the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse—conquest, war, famine, and death—who bring ruin to the world. The fifth, sixth, and seventh seals unlock more suffering, including great earthquakes, the stars falling from the sky, a darkened sun, and rivers turning to blood. Like the Book of Daniel, Revelation employs images of terrible beasts rising from the ocean. Satan gives control of the earth to one of those beasts, while another—known as the antichrist—leads the armies of evil against the forces of good. After a decisive battle at a place called Armageddon, God's army wins out, the beasts are cast into a lake of burning sulfur, and God makes a triumphant return to earth.
Islamic apocalyptic traditions share many elements with Christianity, including the belief that Jesus will one day return to the world. In Islam, however, Jesus is called Isa and is not the son of God, but a prophet heralding the coming of the great prophet Muhammad. Muslims believe that during the end times a descendant of Muhammad called the Mahdi will appear and restore the Islamic faith throughout the world. Soon after, Dajjal, the Muslim version of the antichrist, will arrive and throw the world into chaos. After a period of great suffering, Isa will return to the Syrian city of Damascus and defeat Dajjal, ushering in a period of peace. Eventually, Isa will die a natural death before God takes all faithful Muslims into heaven and destroys the universe.
In Hinduism, a religion based on the belief the universe undergoes a constant cycle of deaths and rebirths, the god Vishnu is prophesized to return during an age when humankind has fallen into immorality and evil. Vishnu will come as a figure known as Kulki, an incarnation of destruction who rides a white horse and wields a great sword shaped like a comet. After the universe is destroyed, a new cycle of creation will begin and the process will be repeated for eternity.
Another well-known version of the apocalypse is the Ragnarök, a cataclysmic war between the Norse gods and giants with the world of humans caught in between. During the final battle, a great wolf named Fenrir will consume earth in its jaws, killing the god Odin before finally being destroyed. The battle will eventually claim the lives of both gods and enemies alike, until the land sinks below the sea and the world descends into darkness. As in Hindu beliefs, however, the destruction serves as a new creation. The world will rise again from the ocean and both gods and man are reborn.
Bibliography
Amanat, Abbas, and Magnus Bernhardsson, eds. Imagining the End: Visions of Apocalypse from the Ancient Middle East to Modern America. I.B.Tauris, 2002.
Cohen, Jennie. "Apocalypses That Weren't." History.com, 17 May 2011, www.history.com/news/apocalypses-that-werent. Accessed 17 Nov. 2016.
Himmelfarb, Martha. The Apocalypse: A Brief History. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
Johnston, Sarah Iles, editor. Ancient Religions. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007.
Kurian, George Thomas, and James D. Smith III, editors. The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature. Scarecrow Press, 2010.
Mooney, Ken. Little Book of the End of the World. History Press, 2015.
"Ragnarök: End of the World." Norse Mythology.net, norse-mythology.net/ragnarok-in-norse-mythology/. Accessed 17 Nov. 2016.
"Religions on the End of the World." History.com, http://www.history.com/topics/religions-on-the-end-of-the-world. Accessed 17 Nov. 2016.