Note-Taking

Note-taking is a learning and organizational technique in which a person translates a large amount of information received from another source into condensed written form for later study and evaluation. Note-taking is a basic but important skill in academia, and fundamental note-taking techniques are taught in many learning institutions. The ability to take notes effectively and efficiently ensures that essential information can be retained and used outside of the often limited capacity of memory.

Note-taking has a long history, and scholars have found written records of note-taking from ancient Greece and China. At the 2012 Take Note conference, hosted by Harvard University's Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, scholars presented various perspectives on the history of notes and note-taking. Among the topics discussed were seventeenth-century "note-closets," in which paper notes were hung on hooks like clothes, and "table-books," which had pages covered in wax so that note-takers could inscribe the pages with any metal stylus and copy the text with ink on paper later, then "erase" the pages to use again. While only two note-closets are known to have existed, both in seventeenth-century Germany, the use of table-books is attested as far back as ancient Greek and Roman times. During the Elizabethan era in England, carrying table-books to public events such as plays and sermons became a way of advertising one’s intellectual aptitude.

By the twenty-first century, hundreds of different note-taking processes had been developed, with many learning institutions favoring and promoting certain methods. Common note-taking methods can be divided into categories, including sentence-based, hierarchical or outline-based, and graphic methods.

Core Skills and Competencies

Educators and education specialists have determined central skills that are useful and effective for any method of note-taking. For instance, Cornell University recommends that students learn to use abbreviations and symbols whenever possible to increase speed when taking notes. A handout provided by Stanford University's Center for Teaching and Learning provides a list of useful abbreviations, including "+" or "&" for "and," "w/" for "with," "w/o" for "without," and "w/in" for "within." The handout also recommends eliminating connecting words such as "is," "are," "was," "were," "a/an," and "would" but cautions that the words "and," "in," and "on" should not be eliminated, as these are typically essential to meaning.

Most institutions of higher learning recommend taking notes selectively, rather than trying to document every word of a lecture or a reading. Educators also advise that students should not worry about grammar or spelling while taking notes, but that care should be taken to make sure that notes are legible and understandable to the student upon later referral. According to a 2005 study in the WAC Journal, the average speed of a spoken lecture is two to three words per second, while the average writing speed is 0.3 to 0.4 words per second. This indicates that brevity and abbreviations are necessary for note-takers to stay apace with a lecture or presentation.

Digital Note-Taking

As devices such as tablets and laptop computers have become the preferred method of note-taking by many students in the twenty-first century, a variety of applications (apps) and software systems have been developed to accommodate and facilitate note-taking. Some allow users to take notes in "written" format using a stylus and tablet. The advantage of taking notes using a digital device can be significant. Note-takers can send notes to other computers or devices, edit them more easily, and store them together in an accessible, relatively permanent manner. Depending on the note-taker's ability, typing notes may be faster than writing by hand.

Yet while electronic note-taking apps and laptop-based note-taking have gained popularity among students, research indicates that typing notes into a laptop or word processor may not advance learning as well as traditional handwritten note-taking. A study published in a 2014 issue of Psychological Science indicates that students who take notes on laptops tend to type verbatim, transcribing rather than processing and reinterpreting information, due to the relative speed of typing versus writing by hand. According to the study, actively reframing notes by writing them out in shorthand or organizing them through mapping, charting, or outlining assists memory and deeper understanding of the subjects. Subsequent studies have led to similar conclusions; a 2015 review published in the American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education reports one study showing that students who took handwritten notes performed better than those who typed their notes on both fact-based questions and questions designed to test conceptual comprehension.

The review also mentions educators' concerns that having a laptop computer in class offers distractions that tend to divide students' attentions and distract them from the material. However, one study in particular suggested that students using tablets are less likely to succumb to distractions than those using laptops. Several note-taking mobile and tablet apps in particular are recommended "based on student utility and reviews," including Evernote, Notability, and Penultimate. The authors of the review noted that the most effective learning apps are those that "accommodate an active note-taking process and enable efficient review of those notes."

During the 2020s, the rise of artificial intelligence (AI) introduced a new way to take notes. AI features were increasingly added to existing note-taking platforms, giving users the ability to use an AI-based writing assistant to help brainstorm, edit, and summarize text. Other apps use AI to convert voice memos into formatted notes and perform more complex tasks, such as making new connections and explaining sophisticated ideas to users.

Common Note-Taking Methods

Outlining and Linear Systems. One of the most basic note-taking methods, known as the sentence method, involves writing each new thought pertaining to the subject on separate but successive lines. Space may be left between sentences for the later addition of information or to make reading and studying easier. The sentence method is fast and is often used when there may be insufficient time to organize information into outlines or more comprehensive note-taking formats.

Outlining is a common note-taking style that arranges notes into nested sets of headings designated by various types of markers, typically Roman numerals, letters, and Arabic numerals. An outline allows students to organize information into various categories, with each subsection detailing information that relates to the category above. Outlining is a common note-taking system, and many word processors and note-taking apps have built-in outlining systems and tools.

Cornell Note-Taking System. The Cornell note-taking system is named for Cornell University, where the system was originally developed and recommended. It divides the page into columns, with a larger six-inch column on the right side of the page and a smaller two-and-a-half-inch column on the left. The right-hand column is used to take notes on a lecture or from a book. In the left column, called the "cue column," the student writes key words or short phrases related to the information presented at the right.

Following the note-taking session, the student reviews the information in the right-hand section, underlining important points and adding detail where needed. To study, the student covers the right-hand section and uses the short prompts in the cue section to stimulate his or her memory on specific subjects or topics. The student then tries to recite the essential information written in the right-hand section.

Mapping Systems. Concept mapping is a note-taking method that organizes information into a visual graphic to allow for greater understanding of the connections between pieces of information. A typical method involves drawing a circle or box, either in the center or at the top of a page, containing the broadest classification of a topic. This circle or box is then connected via lines to subordinate topics in smaller boxes, creating a branching map of information. Each branch contains related information. For instance, a page on the French Revolution might have branches for Napoleon Bonaparte, the Jacobins, and the Bourbon dynasty.

The mapping system is popular with visual learners and has the potential to provide more information than a simpler sentence structure. Information maps called "mind maps" are often used in brainstorming, which is a technique for strategizing in which an individual or group makes a list of subtopics related to a central issue.

Charting Method. The charting method divides the page into columns or rows used for various categories. Information from the reading or lecture is then inserted into the appropriate category. Charting can be beneficial in that students can easily find and review all information related to a certain topic. For instance, a category in a chart might contain important dates or figures associated with a topic, allowing students to review quickly the essential dates or persons when studying.

Research & Theory

In a 2001 paper prepared for the University of Michigan, the authors cite research studies from the 1980s and 1990s indicating that note-taking is superior to passive reading or listening in aiding recall. The process of reviewing notes made during a lecture, presentation, or reading appears to be an essential part of the process. A 2000 study found that students recall information best if they record their own notes but that reviewing notes prepared by another student or given by an instructor also works to facilitate understanding and recall.

In a 2005 issue of the WAC Journal, the authors summarize decades of research on the benefits of note-taking in the learning process. According to the authors, linear structures of note-taking, such as the sentence method, are less effective than the outline structure, while the charting and mapping methods work best in terms of remembering and comprehending knowledge. The authors cite numerous studies indicating that the most effective note-taking methods have a common quality: forcing students to reinterpret information, rather than simply record it. The deeper cognitive processing needed to reinterpret and arrange information leads to deeper learning and comprehension. The authors also cite studies indicating that students at the high school and higher learning levels benefit markedly from dedicated training in note-taking, as well as exposure and introduction to abbreviations, symbols, and other shorthand methods associated with more efficient note-taking.

Research also continued into the twenty-first century on the benefits of digital note-taking versus handwritten notes. A 2024 study published in the journal Frontiers in Psychology, for instance, determined that taking physical notes leads to increased connectivity between different regions of the brain than typing notes on a keyboard. The study found that those benefits applied even to taking digital notes with a stylus and tablet.

Bibliography

Boch, Françoise, and Annie Piolat. "Note Taking and Learning: A Summary of Research." WAC Journal 16 (2005): 101–13. The WAC Clearinghouse. Web. 23 May 2016.

Bui, Dung C., and Joel Myerson. "The Role of Working Memory Abilities in Lecture Note-Taking." Learning and Individual Differences 33 (2014): 12–22.

DeZure, Deborah, Matthew Kaplan, and Martha A. Deerman. Research on Student Notetaking: Implications for Faculty and Graduate Student Instructors. CRLT Occasional Paper 16. University of Michigan. Ann Arbor: Center for Research on Learning and Teaching, U of Michigan, 2001. Center for Research on Learning and Teaching. Web. 23 May 2016.

Hu, Charlotte. "Why Writing by Hand Is Better for Memory and Learning." Scientific American, 21 Feb. 2024, www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-writing-by-hand-is-better-for-memory-and-learning/. Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.

Kesselman-Turkel, Judi, and Franklynn Peterson. Note-Taking Made Easy. 1982. U of Wisconsin P, 2003.

"Methods of Note Taking." Alexandria Technical & Community College. Alexandria Technical & Community Coll., 2015. Web. 23 May 2016.

Mueller, Pam A., and Daniel M. Oppenheimer. "The Pen Is Mightier Than the Keyboard: Advantages of Longhand over Laptop Note Taking." Psychological Science 25.6 (2014): 1159–68. Web. 23 May 2016.

"Note Taking Systems." Student Academic Services. California Polytechnic State U, 2015. Web. 23 May 2016.

Schuessler, Jennifer. "Note-Taking’s Past, Deciphered Today." New York Times. New York Times, 6 Nov. 2012. Web. 23 May 2016.

Sieben, Rob. "Digital Interfaces for Learning." Australian Educational Leader 37.2 (2015): 62–65. Education Source. Web. 23 May 2016.

Sreedhar, Nitin. "The Quest for Smarter Note-Taking." Mint Lounge, 4 May 2024, lifestyle.livemint.com/smart-living/innovation/digital-note-taking-apps-obsidian-notion-evernote-capacities-111712296165760.html. Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.

Stacy, Elizabeth Moore, and Jeff Cain. "Note-Taking and Handouts in the Digital Age." American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 79.7 (2015): n. pag. Education Source. Web. 23 May 2016.

"Taking Notes: Evaluate Your Present Note-Taking System." CTL Student Resources. Stanford U, 11 Oct. 2004. Web. 23 May 2016.