Religious symbolism and mathematics

SUMMARY: Many religious symbols are mathematical in nature. 

Archaeological research suggests that religion predates the human ability to read and write but that symbols were often used to express religious ideas and to convey meaning. In this context, such symbols might be pictures, geometric objects, or numbers that hold a particular meaning within a given faith. Long after the introduction of the written word, symbols still hold a powerful place in most religions. There are many highly recognizable symbol forms that are used in various ways by different faiths around the world, though they often share similar underlying structures, themes, or meanings. Symmetry is common in religious symbolism, as are certain numbers or concepts that some believe to have special significance beyond mathematical interpretations. For example, some have proposed a stylized version of the empty set symbol to represent atheism. 

Stars

Stars have been used for millennia in a variety of religions. The most common is a five-pointed star, also known as a “pentagram” (penta meaning “five”). At times, the five points have represented the five senses (vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste). Wiccans use the points to represent five elements (spirit, fire, air, water, and earth) as do Taoists (fire, earth, metal, water, and wood). Other times, it has represented the human body with the “points” of the body relating to the head, arms, and legs outstretched, as seen in the Baha’i Faith where the pentagram is its official symbol. Christians have used the pentagram to denote the wounds (five stigmata) received by Jesus Christ when he was crucified—hands, feet, and side. Judaism has used the pentagram to represent the Pentateuch (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) and later, Solomon’s Seal. Muslims use a crescent moon and a pentagram to denote the religion of Islam. 

Some religions have used a point-down pentagram as part of their symbolism. For example, Anton LaVey’s Satanists (who have nothing to do with Satan—they do not believe Satan exists) use the upside down pentagram for their symbol and often impose a goat’s head in the symbol with the upper points representing horns, the side points being the ears, and the lower point as the chin and beard area. Mormons (belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints) have used the inverted symbol in some temple architecture as representing the “morning star” (Venus’ path in the sky). 

Another star variation is the six-sided star, sometimes referred to as a “hexagram” (hexa means “six”) or the Star of David as a symbol of Judaism. Most often, this star is drawn as two equilateral triangles drawn on top of each other with one pointing up, the other down, and slightly offset. Hindus have a variation of the hexagram called the Shatkona, which show the triangles weaved together denoting the interlocking of fire and water, or male and female. The hexagram is also a symbol for Rastafarians and is usually solid black. The Raelism Movement uses a different variation of the hexagram as their official symbol; it contains a right-facing swastika embedded in the center of the star. 

A seven-pointed star (called a “heptagram”) is sometimes used by Jews and Christians to denote a seven-day creation. Faery Wiccans and Blue Star Wiccans also use the seven-pointed star, but the Blue Star Wiccans refer to it as a “septagram” instead. 

There are a few variations of eight-pointed stars. Islam has a star referred to as rub el hizb, which appears as two squares superimposed with one slightly offset the other. It is used to help facilitate the recitation of the Qur’an. The same shape (without the center circle) is referred to as the Star of Lakshmi by Hindus, where it represents the eight forms or kinds of wealth. This shape is referred to as an 8/2 “octagram” (oct means “eight”). The “8/2” indicates that there are eight sides on the star and every second point (or vertex) is connected with a line. An 8/3 octagram would have every third vertex connected to each other. This symbol has been used by Christians to represent baptism and resurrection. Ancient Mesopotamia calls their eight-pointed star the Seal of Shamash. The center was a circle representing the sun (Shamash) with eight points emanating from the center. Most likely, the vertical and horizontal points represent the four directions of the compass while the diagonal points represent the equinoxes and solstices. 

Although the Baha’i uses a pentagram for their official symbol, a nine-pointed star is more commonly associated with the religion. The star is often drawn similar to the hexagram, but with three equilateral triangles slightly offset and a single point at the top of the star, but without the inner lines. The Baha’i Faith also uses another version of the nine-pointed star with symbols of the “nine world religions” at each point. 

Crosses

The cross is sometimes thought of as a universal symbol for Christianity since, in the Christian faith, Jesus is believed to have been crucified on a Roman cross. However, there are many types of “Christian crosses” and many religious crosses that are not of Christian origin. The original Christian cross probably resembled an “X” for the first Greek letter in the word “Christ.” It is not related to the crucifixion and came much later than Jesus’s death, as many early Christians opposed its use. When placed so that its arms pointed vertically and horizontally, the meaning was the four directions of the compass—where the gospel should be spread. Eventually, the Greek cross made way for the Latin cross, which resembles a lower case “t.” Orthodox Christians add a small horizontal line above the arms of the cross denoting the sign hung by Pilate, and a small diagonal line below the arms of the cross denoting a footrest. Other denominations, like Methodists, show a flame behind the cross indicating the Holy Spirit. Sometimes, the cross is displayed upside down, known as a reversed cross or the cross of Saint Peter. Although the original meaning for this cross probably originated from Peter’s request to be crucified upside down (so was Christian in origin), many have associated it with the occult and Satanism. Because satanists inverted the Christian pentagram, people believe they inverted the cross as well. 

The ankh has a cross for a base, but an oval in place of the head of the cross. Sometimes, the ankh is referred to as an ansata, or handle, cross. This symbol was primarily used in Egypt as a symbol of life and fertility. Since its context was often in regards to resurrection, this symbol was used by Gnostic sects of early Christians to symbolize the resurrection of Christ. The ankh was actually used by Christians before the Latin cross. Wiccans currently use this symbol today to mean immortality and completion. 

Another misunderstood religious symbol is the swastika. The swastika is a cross with its arms bent at right angles, most commonly so that the top arm is bent to the right and each remaining arm is bent in a similar clockwise direction (from the center) to give the impression of movement. When the arms are bent in the other direction, it can be called a “swastika” or it is sometimes referred to as a “sauwastika.” The name is Sanskrit in origin and can be loosely translated as “good luck charm.” Historical records show that the swastika is an ancient symbol (older than the ankh). Hindus use both forms of the swastika; the right facing means the evolution of the universe, whereas the left facing indicates the involution of the universe. Together, both versions are thought of as a balance of opposites. Buddhists primarily used the right facing swastika, although recently they have changed to using the left facing version, as the right facing version has become known as an anti-Semitic hate symbol since World War II. The swastika used by the Nazis was right facing but also rotated 45 degrees and appears different from the religious symbols. In Jainism, the swastika is the symbol for their seventh saint (or Jina). Jainists draw swastikas using rice to begin and end ceremonies around altars and idols. The swastika has also been used by Native Americans to represent the sun, the four directions, and the four seasons. Raelians use the swastika in a hexagram to denote that time is infinite. 

Sacred Geometry

The philosophical school of thought termed "Sacred Geometry" has historical roots. This philosophy represented a belief that a divine creator had provided to humans many mathematical models by exhibiting them in nature. Examples are the logarithmic spiral that characterizes a a nautilus shell or the hexagonal shape utilized by honey bees in their nests. These types of mathematical observances manifested and incorporated themselves in the architectural design of structures, many of them religious-themed buildings like the soaring arches of Christian cathedrals or the domed minarets of Islamic mosques. Buddhist structures in Asia utilized features such as pagoda's roofs. Similar architectural practices appeared worldwide and through multiple eras, such as in Mayan pyramids in Central America and Egyptian temples. 

Bibliography

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