Sexuality and the Media

Abstract

Sexuality—a person's ability to be sexual—is a concept that has changed meaning over time, as has America's response to it. Explicit sexual references are common in twenty-first century media and are viewed as normal by the public. This may result in young individuals behaving in unhealthy sexual ways. Described below are research studies focusing on the influences of some of those media sources. Seventeen, Cosmopolitan, and Cleo magazines, hip-hop music videos, and social media are discussed, as well as other media sources shown to send positive messages, including those concentrating on safe sex, pregnancy prevention, and other healthy behaviors.

Overview

"In the early 1960s the word pregnant was not allowed on television, and movies and television did not show married couples in the same bed" (Kammayer, Ritzer & Yetman, 1994, p. 209). In the twenty-first century, this is a common occurrence, but the media did not change overnight. As such, it cannot take full responsibility for the misunderstanding or misrepresentation of sexuality. Indeed, magazine covers, various advertisements, websites, and television programs are viewed by millions, resulting in representations that are expected by consumers. Yet, they do not necessarily depict reality; only soap opera stars have sex with their husband's sons, becoming pregnant with twins by both men in some bizarre, yet plausible, way. Additionally, the average woman is not a size four like the models in magazines. Nevertheless, these persist in the twenty-first century.

It is possible that audiences live vicariously through these sexual mediums, knowing their lives will never be like those in the media, but this promotes those mediums as acceptable or normal. Normalcy, however, does have standards. In a perfect world, a person would not become involved in sexual activity until he or she was mentally, emotionally, and physically prepared to do so. However, life as a teenager is rarely perfect, and peer pressure, the media, and curiosity create an inherent mystique about sex. When the media continuously references sex as fun, popular, and normal, anyone who is not sexually active feels left out or abnormal.

Sexuality-Based Media. Some media outlets use a variety of tactics to teach responsibility and confidence, but most do not. Indeed, the media that many children are exposed to encourage behaviors that degrade women, suggest provocative displays of physical interaction, and belittle the confidence required to "just say no." Kammayer, et al. (1994) identify three ways that sexual activities are characterized by American culture:

• Depersonalized: Sexual acts and sexual partners are treated as though they are unimportant.
• Commercialized: Sex is bought and sold, just like any other commodity.
• Individuals are accustomed to purchasing their recreation and sex is seen by many as a form of recreation.
• Includes the sale of sexually oriented clothing and other sexual paraphernalia that are widely advertised and displayed.
• In dating situations, when men pay for meals and entertainment, there is often the implicit assumption that the women owe something in return.
• Coercive and aggressive: According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), as of 2022, approximately 41 percent of women and 26 percent of men "experienced contact sexual violence, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner and reported an intimate partner violence-related impact during their lifetime" (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2022).

It is unclear what came first in the formation of sexuality-based media. Did society become used to sexual references and the media opted to make it a marketing tool? Or, did the media slowly introduce images of sexuality and audiences became conditioned to it? It may be that the conditioning toward and the promotion of sexuality as mainstream happened concurrently. Regardless, the consequences of the conditioning remain the same. If sex is seen as purely physical—promoted by sexy pictures in magazines, steamy plots on television shows, and scantily clad women in music videos—rather than emotional—in real-life relationships—young men and women may mature accustomed to sex being a minor detail in their lives.

Teenagers & the Media. Some adolescents will talk to their parents. However, many will turn to their peers. Some may even depend on books, but most will gather information from various media sources. Children spend, on average, several hours each day using smartphones, tablets, laptops, and televisions, often at the same time.

Considering the breakdown of a twenty-four-hour day for an average teenager (eight hours for sleep; seven hours in school; eight hours of media influence), there may not be much time for conversations with parents. What is more important than the lack of time to talk with parents should be the enormous power media sources have on the average teen.

According to Girls Incorporated, teens may rely on the media for information because what insights they do get from adults are not necessarily helpful. It is not clear what information is told to teens "too late," but it is possible those criteria may be directed toward physical development, which, especially for young girls, happens earlier than most people want to think. These changes by nature instill curiosity about sexuality. Without honest input from parents, though, adolescents will find information in other ways that may be inaccurate or biased.

Further Insights: The Media.

Magazines & Teens. One way to settle that curiosity is to read magazines that specialize in the sexual matters of teenagers such as Seventeen. "Adolescent girls cite magazines as significant sources of sexual information that are as meaningful a source as their parents" (as cited in Medley-Rath, 2007, p. 25). Medley-Rath examined the advice column of Seventeen for almost ten years to determine if teens reading the magazine would gain clear-cut information about sexuality based on the contents of the column. As the column's format is anonymous, based on letters sent by readers, it may be easier for teens to ask Seventeen rather than their parents when questions about sex arise, especially those of an explicit nature.

For example, the following question and response were printed in Seventeen in December 1995 (p. 46).

Reader: Questions losing her virginity as her boyfriend's penis was "partially inside her vagina."

Seventeen: "There's no textbook definition of sex. You are right that, technically speaking, penetration pretty much equals sex. For your boyfriend, though, it may not qualify unless he has an orgasm" (Medley-Rath, 2007, p 39).

Medley-Rath notes that in this exchange, "sex is defined [for girls] based on penetration but for boys it might only count if he orgasms" (p. 30). An anxious teen trying to determine one of the most important questions of her life might find this response confusing. If initial ejaculation represents the epic moment for boys, do they lose their virginity through masturbation (self or mutual) or oral sex? This was not addressed during the nine-year research study conducted by Medley-Rath; the researcher notes that the lack of such information suggests that boys get to decide when they lose their virginity while girls have that decision made for them.

Likewise, if an adolescent inquires about gay, lesbian, or alternative sexual acts, Medley-Rath found that he or she was provided the same information that was provided to heterosexual inquiries: virginity (for girls) is lost when a penis penetrates a vagina. This communicates to readers that the important event of losing one's virginity can only happen to girls who have intercourse with boys. It also communicates that intercourse (vaginal penetration with a penis) is normal. According to Medley-Rath,

"Teen magazines present heterosexual sexual behaviors as normative (Carpenter 1998; Currie 1999; Jackson 1999, as cited in Medley-Rath, p. 25) … Heteronormative virginity loss is placed on a pedestal compared to non-heteronormative virginity loss, even though individuals may have other sexual experiences they consider as important as intercourse." (Medley-Rath, p. 27)

Adolescence is difficult enough. To have feelings that are not discussed by a magazine that is supposed to support teen girls may have a devastating effect. Yet, in the culture of Seventeen, that has not seemed to be a concern; heteronormative ideals have continued to be espoused by the magazine in the twenty-first century. On the other hand, Medley-Rath did note that Seventeen was clear to stress that abstinence is the only way to avoid sexually transmitted infections (August 1989). Conversely, Seventeen never supplied an official definition of abstinence for its readers. Nor did the magazine discuss the medical determination of a broken hymen regarding virginity loss in girls within the nine years Medley-Rath studied its column.

Magazines & Adults.Seventeen was created to reach females ages 13 to 18; Cosmopolitan and its Australian contemporary, Cleo, were created for female readers ages 18 to 34. Cosmo is the most widely read women's lifestyle magazine globally (McCleneghan, 2003, as cited in Farvid & Braun, 2006, p. 298), and therefore the information within the magazine reaches (and influences) millions of people. Farvid & Braun (2006) conducted an examination much like Medley-Rath's to determine how sexuality has been approached in these two adult magazines. Farvid & Braun looked at the portrayal of male sexuality and how it conditions female sexuality (both overtly and covertly) from issue to issue (p. 296). They conclude:

"The focus on men is particularly relevant because, in a heteronormative world, male and female sexualities are constructed simultaneously. Therefore, although previous examinations of constructions of femininity/female sexuality in magazines have been useful, they are only partially complete, as female (hetero) sexuality is also constructed through the magazines' accounts of male (hetero) sexuality" (Farvid & Braun, 2006, p. 298).

The research was based on six issues of both magazines from January to June 2002 (p. 298), and the data is consistent with that of the Seventeen study. Sexuality (for both men and women) was portrayed exclusively as heterosexual (Jackson, 1996; McLoughlin, 2000, as cited in Farvid & Braun, p. 299). Furthermore, while there were several incidences in which women were portrayed as being confident and independent,

"…women were overwhelmingly represented as wanting/ needing men in their lives and ultimately seeking (monogamous) long-term relationships with men; this was often situated as the desired outcome from a new date/sexual encounter…[Furthermore, w]omen were constantly depicted as ultimately looking for their 'Mr. Right' (who was presumed to exist for all women)… [and] men were implicitly located as the underlying source of women's fulfillment, security, and happiness. The magazines rarely considered a woman's life without a man. Men were rarely represented as 'needing' women in the same manner, and their presumed full autonomy and independence was something women implicitly still do not possess, nor should they desire it" (p. 299-300).

As a publication created for women, what men want in and outside of the bedroom was the focus from month to month. In addition, women "giving" men what they want was also the focus in that advice (sometimes from men), provided for readers to best meet the (primarily sexual) needs of the men in their lives. This information was provided based on the assumption that women did not already have it—or could not figure it out on their own. Furthermore, it was clear within the magazines that what men want was their primary concern and should also be the primary concern for women (Farvid & Braun, 2006). Of concern is the fact that interviews from men were expanded upon by the magazine editors as though what the men said was gospel. One man described being controlled by his "groin" as though the biology of his body was responsible for his actions; he could not help being a creature of sexual desire (p. 301). Farvid & Braun note how dangerous this concept can be as it "can function to represent male sexuality as not only needy/driven, but also as uncontrollable, which potentially shifts the responsibility of certain sexual actions (such as infidelity/cheating [or sexual assaults]) away from the man" (p. 301).

When articles entitled "Guy talk: Is there any man totally cheat-proof?," which include quotes from men, are juxtaposed to one advertisement after another selling products to hamper the aging process, it should not be a mystery what message women are supposed to take from these publications (Cosmopolitan, January 2002, as cited in Farvid & Braun, 2007, p. 302).

However, it should be noted that while magazines like Cosmopolitan are very popular, many women enjoy reading them not for the value (or lack of value) of the magazines' advice, but simply for their entertainment value. In addition, a study conducted by Kim and Ward (2012) found that women's lifestyle magazines provide a very strong message about sexual liberation, one that can have both positive and negative consequences. For example, frequent readers were found less likely to view sex as a potentially risky activity. Frequent readers were also more approving of sexual assertion in women for the sake of their own pleasure and were less likely to support the idea of sexual submissiveness. Conversely, women exposed to Cosmopolitan articles who were not as familiar with the type of content were more likely to support sexual submissiveness. Kim and Ward thus concluded that magazines like Cosmo can "potentially have both empowering and problematic effects on women's developing sexual identities." Overall, the researchers found that the social position and personal experiences of each woman in the study strongly influenced how they absorbed the magazine's messages.

Hip-Hop Music Videos. Peterson, Wingood, DiClemente, Harrington, and Davies (2007) conducted one of the first studies to examine the relationship between images of sexual stereotypes in rap and hip-hop music videos to negative health consequences for African American female adolescents. To gather the appropriate data, Peterson et al. created a survey and interview questions about participants' "rap music video viewing habits" (p. 1157). Over five-hundred African American female teens aged fourteen to eighteen participated in the study by completing the written surveys, taking part in oral interviews, and providing urine for a marijuana screening.

In a summary of their findings, Peterson and colleagues note that teenagers who regularly viewed the stereotypical sexual behaviors often portrayed by rap music were more likely (by their own admission) to,

• Engage in binge drinking,
• Test positive for marijuana,
• Have multiple sexual partners, and
• Have a negative body image (p. 1161).

Furthermore, Peterson et al. note that within the history of rap music videos, "African American women are often portrayed as hypersexual, materialistic, and amoral … their depiction often overemphasizes their sexualized, physical appearance and places them as decorative objects rather than active agents, in the videos" (Emerson, 2002; Stephens & Phillips, 2003; Ward, Hansbrough & Walker, 2005, as cited in Peterson, et al., 2007, p. 1158). It could be argued that women, regardless of race, are portrayed the same way in videos representing a variety of musical genres. Consider Madonna, Shakira, Jennifer Lopez, Shania Twain, or Carrie Underwood, who touts a Louisville Slugger proudly as she bashes the headlights out of her cheating boyfriend's truck.

Regardless of how these women behave off camera, their videos portray them as amoral, materialistic, and hypersexual. The problem with those depictions is that they are displayed so frequently, young women may think they represent normal behavior. When those teen bodies, faces, and attitudes do not simulate the ones seen on television, youthful audiences may be left to feel abnormal and inadequate, and in many instances, eager to please, possibly before they truly understand the consequences of pleasing behaviors.

The Internet. In a matter of seconds, a person can access the internet and read random pieces of information, view images, and watch videos on nearly any topic. The topics discussed above—music videos, magazines, television—can be found online and can influence one's perception of sexuality, whether an individual is viewing an advertisement or porn. Additionally, to absorb this media, individuals can interact via social media, like Facebook, Tumblr, Twitter, and Reddit. These sites allow individuals to upload pictures of themselves, share specific personal information such as age and location, and discuss their lives in great detail to the public, on topics ranging from sexual preference to God to teen pregnancy and abortion. Depending on one's security settings, almost anyone can view user profiles and current and past discussions on such topics.

Additionally, creating a topic or post may also set an author up for criticism. In one instance on social media (2008), a teenager wrote in about being pregnant. She was asking anyone who wanted to respond about their opinions regarding her not having an abortion. The girl was ridiculed, heckled, and supported by people she did not even know. Furthermore, her post created a series of discussions on the general topics of teen pregnancy and abortion. After several posts listing various opinions, the author posted a short note (again, to anyone who wanted to read it) stating that she had had a miscarriage. This, in turn, set off further discussions.

Positive Influences: Sexuality Education & The Media

Girls Inc. is a nonprofit organization dedicated to "inspiring all girls to be strong, smart, and bold" (http://www.girlsinc.org). The organization focuses educational programming toward high-risk female youth in the United States and Canada. The various programs include healthy living, academic enrichment and support, and life-skills instruction.

What is especially appealing about this resource is that if someone's community does not have a Girls Incorporated organization, most of the programming can be acquired online. Information about internet safety, friendships, sexuality, violence, and education can be found within seconds when touring this site. Additionally, women who lead successful lives—running companies, demonstrating effective parenting skills, participating in political activism—are celebrated every day on the site so that young girls can see the possibilities of thinking positively about themselves.

An article entitled "All he talks about is sex" is sure to raise eyebrows. However, it describes Jairo Bouer, a Brazilian psychiatrist for adolescents who has talked openly about sex—pregnancy prevention, sexually transmitted infections, and HIV—over the Brazilian airwaves to help youth learn the truth about sexuality (Tabakman, 2005).

"[H]e has two radio programs, appears on television ("I reach the rich by cable and the poor by parabolic antenna"), writes books, participates in conferences (including some organized by the Pan American Health Organization), serves as a government consultant on HIV/AIDS and drug and alcohol prevention, and has his own website—you guessed it—on sex" (Tabakman, 2005, p. 17-18).

Much like Dr. Ruth Westheimer in the United States, Bouer has used humor to reach his audience, many times by seeking out adolescents on their turf; he appeared on MTV Brazil for a four-hour program on sex in 1998. When unable to go to them, Bouer has encouraged youth to use the radio or internet when they need information. He has noted that the call-in format of his talk shows and Q&A section on his website create anonymity for people who simply want accurate information, like one caller who asked, "Can any fluid from the penis make you pregnant?" (Tabakman, 2005, p. 18).

Encouraging the development of positive sexual behaviors is not a concept restricted to the internet or radio talk shows. The more consistently the message is promoted, the more seriously it will be taken by its audience.

"When messages appear in different media simultaneously, their effect is intensified. Various partners in the field of reproductive health, such as governmental and non-governmental agencies, industry and trade, and women's and youth groups, can take a lead in mass media work. Schools can facilitate or develop partnerships with mass media representatives to coordinate and collaborate on efforts that address family life, reproductive health, and population issues and to ensure consistent messages" ("Family Life," 2003, p. 47).

According to Dr. Gunta Lazdane, regional advisor of Reproductive Health and Research at the WHO Regional Office for Europe, the goal of any sexuality education collaboration should be all-encompassing:

"Sexuality education is not just about providing information. It helps young people develop values, attitudes, and skills so that they can make appropriate choices about their sexual behaviour. Having respect for oneself and others, making considered choices about sexual activity and acquiring emotional intelligence are key learning outcomes." (cited in "New Study," 2006, par. 7)

Girls Incorporated, Jairo Bouer, and the World Health Organization encourage a holistic approach to sexuality education delivered via the media. Any young woman who understands that the different pieces of her body are connected to real emotions, a developing intellect, and a future without limits will also understand that she has a responsibility to make the best possible choices.

Viewpoints

Sexuality Beyond Adolescence. The concept of sexuality is one that focuses on young men and women during pubescence, but affects everyone, and often, the media loses sight of that fact, avoiding older populations in advertisements, television programming, and films. The idea of valuing, or classifying, one cohort of people over the other based on their age is called age-grading. According to González (2007), age grading is a practice demonstrated regularly by the media. Indeed, without advertisements for Cialis or Viagra, the concept of older people having sex may not be considered. The problem with this is that power relationships are formed through the differences in people who are considered sexually attractive and those who are not, namely older adults.

For example, Simon (1996) notes that when a child or an older woman is raped, communities become enraged, but when a forty-year-old woman is raped, communities tend to be less outraged (p. 52–54, as cited in González, 2007). This is age-grading—children and older adults are not sexual creatures and, therefore, when sex is forced upon them, it is despicable, but when a woman who is expected to be sexually active is raped, the instinct to be outraged is lowered. The very young and the very old are seen as more vulnerable; their ages are classified as more important in this situation than the forty-year-old woman. Similarly, an older people who is mugged ranks much higher in media coverage than a middle-aged person.

This is a common phenomenon in the media. Middle-aged women are constantly seen in advertisements for products to help them look younger, as younger is classified as a societal value. It is common also to note a distinguished older man, as if the effects of the aging process have not taken their toll on men as they have on older women. This is stereotypical and creates a societal norm that women must fight the process, while men simply let it happen.

"Consequently, age-graded sexualities are those arenas where our bodies are in constant struggle against their own ageing bodily boundaries while sexually expressing themselves … Because age-grading configures complex and contested forms of interaction and ways of experiencing sexuality, understanding these aspects requires establishing connections with sociological issues that affect and mediate our society and sexualities. In consequence, age-graded sexualities are certainly not just about sex, but diverse meanings which change through time and space" (González, 2007, p. 43). Indeed, the implication from the media that women need to hide the effects of aging implies that there is something wrong with the aging process, or that it needs to be concealed. It also creates inconsistency regarding sexuality in that if those effects are not hidden, mature women are less attractive sexually, while the same standard is not given to men.

Conclusion

Sexuality is commonly seen in the media, but its realities are not so commonly discussed. The lack of discussion can lead teens to utilize the media for information about sex, even when that information may be inaccurate or misleading. When parents do not discuss sex with their children, the implication is that it is a topic that is better left to other sources, when, in fact, it may be left out of conversation because parents do not realize their children are curious about it. Additionally, culture promotes sex through the media by not enforcing diligent standards against images that commonly degrade women. Finally, social media, music videos, the internet, television programming, and magazines are easily accessible to youth and may lead young individuals to believe that sex is something they should use to gain the attention of the opposite sex.

Terms & Concepts

Abstinence: Restraint from sexual intercourse.

Age Grading: Classifying or ranking people based on their ages.

Heteronormative: Basing what is normal on the behaviors of heterosexuals.

Sexual Intercourse: Phrase used to define the act of sexual penetration.

Sexuality: The state of being sexual; involvement or interest in sexual activity; sexual orientation.

Bibliography

Aubrey, J., & Frisby, C. M. (2011). Sexual objectification in music videos: A content analysis comparing gender and genre. Mass Communication & Society, 14, 475–501. Retrieved November 13, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=62667863 &site=ehost-live

Callister, M., Stern, L. A., Coyne, S. M., Robinson, T., & Bennion, E. (2011). Evaluation of sexual content in teen-centered films from 1980 to 2007. Mass Communication & Society, 14, 454–474. Retrieved November 13, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=62667867&site=ehost-live

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022b, June 22). Fast facts: Preventing sexual violence. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/sexualviolence/fastfact.html

Collins, R. (2011). Content analysis of gender roles in media: Where are we now and where should we go? Sex Roles, 64(3/4), 290–298. Retrieved November 13, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=57941703&site=ehost-live

Girls Incorporated. (2008). Girls' bill of rights fact sheet. Retrieved July 3, 2008, from Girls Incorporated website: http://www.girlsinc.org/takeaction/bill-of-rights-facts.html

Girls Incorporated. (2008). Homepage: Programs. Retrieved July 3, 2008, from Girls Incorporated website: http://www.girlsinc.org

Girls and Sexuality. (2008). Girls Incorporated. Information Central: Resources Retrieved July 2, 2008, from Girls Incorporated website: http://www.girlsinc.org/ic/page.php?id=3.1.11

González, C. (2007). Age-graded sexualities: The struggles of our ageing body. Sexuality & Culture, 11, 31–47. Retrieved June 23, 2008, from EBSCO online database SocINDEX: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=27768239&site=ehost-live

Family Life, Reproductive Health, and Population Education: Key Elements of a Health-Promoting School. (2003). Retrieved June 25, 2008, from WHO website: http://www.who.int/school_youth_health/media/en/family‗life.pdf

Farvid, P. & Braun, V. (2006). Most of us guys are raring to go anytime, anyplace, anywhere: Male and female sexuality in Cleo and Cosmo. Sex Roles, 55(5/6), 295–310. Retrieved June 23, 2008, from EBSCO online database Gender Studies Database: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=fmh&AN=23332644&site=ehost-live

Kaiser Family Foundation. (2010, January 20). Daily media use among children and teens up dramatically from five years ago. Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from http://kff.org/disparities-policy/press-release/daily-media-use-among-children-and-teens-up-dramatically-from-five-years-ago

Kammayer, K. C. W., Ritzer, G. & Yetman, N. R. (1997). Sociology: Experiencing Changing Societies (7th ed.). Allyn and Bacon.

Lamb, S., Farmer, K. M., Kosterina, E., Lambe Sariñana, S., Plocha, A., & Randazzo, R. (2016). What's sexy? Adolescent girls discuss confidence, danger, and media influence. Gender & Education, 28(4), 527–545. Retrieved January 5, 2018, from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=116193739&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Lewin, T. (2010, January 20). If your kids are awake, they're probably online. New York Times. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/20/education/20wired.html

Lombard, M., & Jones, M. T. (2013). Telepresence and sexuality: A review and a call to scholars. Human Technology, 9, 22–55. Retrieved November 13, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=89063309&site=ehost-live

Medley-Rath, S. R. (2007). "Am I still a virgin?": What counts as sex in 20 years of Seventeen. Sexuality and Culture, 11, 24–38. Retrieved June 23, 2008, from EBSCO online database SocINDEX: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=26607939&site=ehost-live

New study launched on sexuality education for young people. (2006). World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe. Retrieved June 25, 2008, from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2022/719998/IPOL‗STU(2022)719998‗EN.pdf

Peterson, S. H., Wingood, G. M., DiClemente, R. J., Harrington, K. & Davies, S. (2007). Images of sexual stereotypes in rap videos and the health of African American female adolescents. Journal of Women's Health, 16(8), 1157–1164. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2007.0429

Tabakman, R. (2005). All he talks about is sex. Perspectives in Health, 10, 17–19. Retrieved June 25, 2008, from website: http://www.paho.org/English/DD/PIN/Number22‗article3.htm

Kim, J. L., & Ward, M. (2012, August 23). Striving for pleasure without fear: Short-term effects of reading a women's magazine on women's sexual attitudes. Psychology of Women Quarterly. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from Sage Publications. http://pwq.sagepub.com/content /36/3/326.full.pdf+html

Suggested Reading

Baker, C. N. (2005). Images of women's sexuality in advertisements: A content analysis of Black- and White-oriented women's and men's magazines. Sex Roles, 52(1/2), 13–27. Retrieved June 23, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=16272974&site=ehost-live

Ballaster, R., Beetham, M., Frazer, E., & Hebron, S. (1991). Woman's worlds: Ideology, femininity, and the woman's magazine. Macmillian.

Bleakley, A., Hennessy, M., & Fishbein, M. (2011). A model of adolescents' seeking of sexual content in their media choices. Journal of Sex Research, 48, 309–315. Retrieved November 13, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=60429084&site=ehost-live

Bordo, S. (2020). Unbearable weight: Feminism, Western culture, and the body (10th Anniversary ed.). University of California Press.

Boynton, P. M. (1999). "Is that supposed to be sexy?" Women discuss "top shelf" magazines. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 9, 449–461.

Bufkin, J. & Eschholz, S. (2000). Images of sex and rape: A content analysis of popular film. Violence Against Women, 6(12), 1317–1344. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778010022183677

Burt, M. (1980). Cultural myths and support for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(2), 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.217

Butler, M., & Paisley, W. (1980). Women and the mass media. Sourcebook for research and action. Human Sciences Press.

Calderone, M.S. & Johnson, E.W. (1990). The family book about sexuality (rev. ed.). Harper and Row.

Campbell, J. C. (2002). Health consequences of intimate partner violence. Lancet, 359(9314), 1331–1336. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08336-8

Campbell, J. C. & Lewandowski, L. A. (1997). Mental and physical health effects of intimate partner violence on women and children. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 20(2), 353–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70317-8

Chester, B., Robin, R., Koss, M. & Goodman, D. (1994). Grandmother dishonored: Violence against women by male partners in American Indian communities. Special Issue: Violence against women of color. Violence and Victims, 9(3), 249–258.

Coker, A. L., Davis, K. E., Arian, I., Desai, S., Sanderson, M., Brandt, H. M. & Smith, P. H. (2002). Physical and mental health effects of intimate partner violence for men and women, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23, 260–268.

Coker, A. L., Smith, P. H., Bethea, L., King, M. & McKeown, R. E. (2000). Physical health consequences of physical and psychological intimate partner violence. Archives of Family Medicine, 9(5), 451–457. https://doi.org/10.1001/archfami.9.5.451

Cole, J. & Guy-Sheftall, B. (2009). Gender talk: The struggle for women's equality in African American communities. Ballantine Publishing Group.

Collins, P. (2022). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (30th anniversary ed.). Routledge.

Comstock, G. (1991). Television in America (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.

Fisher, G. (1989). Mass media effects on sex role attitudes of incarcerated men. Sex Roles, 20(3/4), 191–203. Retrieved June 18, 2008, from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text: http://search.ebscohost.com /login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=23804780&site=ehost-live

Gerson, W. M. (1966). Mass media socialization behavior: Negro-white differences. Social Forces, 45, 40–50. Retrieved June 18, 2008, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=13540629&sit e=ehost-live

Gray, J. (2014). Mars and Venus in the bedroom: A guide to lasting romance and passion. HarperCollins.

He, M. (2002). How much is known about gender difference? Chinese Education & Society, 35, 53. Retrieved March 31, 2008, from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9488095&site=ehost-live

Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. (2020). The 1996 Kaiser Family Foundation survey on teens and sex: What they say teens today need to know and who they listen to. Retrieved May 31, 2023, from https://www.kff.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Teens-on-Sex-What-They-Say-Teens-Today-Need-to-Know-And-Who-They-Listen-To-Toplines-Survey.pdf

Herman-Giddens, M.E. (1997). Secondary sexual characteristics and menses in young girls seen in office practice: A study from the pediatric research in office settings network. Pediatrics, 99(4), 505–512. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.99.4.505

Hermes, J. (2010). Reading women's magazines: An analysis of everyday media use (reprint ed.). Polity.

Hochschild, A. (2020). The managed heart. University of California Press.

Holland, J., Ramazanoglu, C., Sharpe, S., & Thompson, R. (1992). Pressured pleasure: Young women and the negotiation of boundaries. Tufnell.

Holland, J., Ramazanoglu, C., Sharpe, S., & Thompson, R. (2004). The male in the head: Young people, heterosexuality, and power (2nd ed.). Tufnell Press.

Hubbard, J. C., DeFleur, M. L. & DeFleur, L. B. (1975). Mass media influences on public conceptions of social problems. Social Problems, 23(1), 22–34. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.1975.23.1.03a00030

Jackson, S. (2005). "I'm 15 and desperate for sex": "Doing" and "undoing" desire in letters to a teenage magazine. Feminism & Psychology, 15(3), 295–313. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959-353505054717

Janus, S. S., & Janus, C. L. (1993). The Janus report on sexual behavior. John Wiley & Sons.

Kingsbury, K. (2008). Pregnancy boom at Gloucester High. Time. Retrieved June 23, 2008, from http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1815845,00.html

Klapper, J. T. (1960). The effects of mass communications. The Free Press.

Laws, J. L., & Schwartz, P. (1977). Sexual scripts: The social construction of female sexuality. The Dryden Press.

Liau, A., DiClemente, R. J., Wingood, G. M., et al. (2002). Associations between biologically confirmed marijuana use and laboratory-confirmed sexually transmitted diseases among African American adolescent females. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 29(7), 387–390. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007435-200207000-00004

Masters, W. H., Johnson, V. E., & Kolodny, R. C. (2006). Masters and Johnson on sex and human loving. Little, Brown and Company.

McPhillips, K., Braun, V., & Gavey, N. (2001). Defining (hetero)sex: How imperative is the "coital imperative"? Women's Studies International Forum, 24(2), 229–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-5395(01)00160-1

McRobbie, A. (2022). Feminism and youth culture (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Mellor, P. A. & Shilling, C. (1997). Re-forming the body: religion community and modernit. Sage.

Michaels, S., & Giami, A. (1999). Review: Sexual acts and sexual relationships: Asking about sex in surveys. Public Opinion Quarterly, 63(3), 401–420. https://doi.org/10.1086/297727

Milkie, M. A. (1999). Social comparisons, reflected appraisals, and mass media: The impact of pervasive beauty images on black and white girls' self-concepts. Social Psychology Quarterly, 62, 190–210. Retrieved June 23, 2008, from EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=2207093&site=ehost-live

Mohler, M. (2013). Homosexual rites of passage. A road to visibility and validation. Routledge.

Neugarten, B. (1981). Age distinctions and their social functions. Chicago Kent Law Review, 57(4), 809–825. https://scholarship.kentlaw.iit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2423&context=cklawreview

Nicholas, K. B., McCarter, R. E., & Hecket, R. V. (1971). The effects of race and sex on the imitation of television models. Journal of Social Psychology, 85, 315–316.

Presser, H. B. (1975). Age differences between spouses. American Behavioural Scientist, 19(2), 190–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/000276427501900205

Rivera, R. (2004). Contraception: Issues in adolescent health and development. World Health Organization. Retrieved May 25, 2023, from https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42901/9241591447‗eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Rosenfeld, B. (2006). Assisted suicide and the right to die. American Psychological Association.

Ross, K. (Ed.) (2014). The handbook of gender, sex, and media. Wiley-Blackwell.

Russo, N. F. & Pirlott, A. (2006). Gender-based violence. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1087, 178–205. Retrieved June 23, 2008, from EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=24595802 &site=ehost-live

Seggar, J. F. (1977). Television's portrayal of minorities and women, 1971–1975. Journal of Broadcasting, 2, 435–446.

Seggar, J. F. & Wheeler, P. (1973). World of work on TV: Ethnic and sex representation in TV drama. Journal of Broadcasting, 17(2), 201–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838157309363684

Smith, C., & Attwood, F. (2020). The Routledge companion to media, sex and sexuality. Routledge.

Sprecher, S., Harris, G. & Meyers, A. (2008). Perceptions of sources of sex education and targets of communication: Sociodemographic and cohort effects. Journal of Sex Research, 45, 17. Retrieved June 18, 2008, from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=31560786&site=ehost-live

Steele, J. & Brown, J. D. (1995). Adolescent room culture: Studying media in the context of everyday life. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 24, 551–576. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01537056

Williams, T. M., (Ed). (1986). The impact of television: A natural experiment m three communities. Academic Press.

Wingood, G. M., DiClemente, R. J., Bernhardt, J. M., Harrington, K., Davies, S. L., Robillard, A., & Hook, E. W., 3rd (2003). A prospective study of exposure to rap music videos and African American female adolescents' health. American Journal of Public Health, 93(3), 437–439. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.93.3.437

Wingood, G., DiClemente, R.J., Harrington, K. & Davies, S. L. (2002). Body image and African American females' sexual health. Journal of Womens Health and Gender Based Medicine, 11(5), 433–439. https://doi.org/10.1089/15246090260137608

Emerson, R. A. (2002). Where my girls at? Negotiating black womanhood in music videos. Gender & Society, 16(1), 115-135 DOI:10.1177/0891243202016001007

Stephens, D. P. & Phillips, L. D. (2003). Freaks, gold diggers, divas, and dykes: The sociohistorical development of adolescent African American women's sexual script. Sexuality Culture, 7(1), 3–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03159848

Ward, L., Hansbrough, E. & Walker, E. (2005). Contributions of music video exposure to black adolescents' gender and sexual schemas. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20(2), 143–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558404271135