Technology and the Mass Media

Abstract

The evolution of technology, mass media, and society is deeply intertwined. Technological advances flourished with the invention of the printing press, a process of social transformation that enabled scientific and political revolutions by promoting the ideas of the nation-state and democracy. Throughout the twentieth century, radio and television enabled the propaganda of authoritarian leaders on the one hand and the world of advertising and consumerism in modern capitalism on the other. With the advent of the Internet, society entered the information age, with generations of digital natives coming of age.

Overview

Recent decades have seen a drastic change in the technological distribution of information, a change that has had a lasting effect on our social structures and cultural memory. A similar change occurred nearly 600 years ago with the advent of the printing press, though less rapidly. With Johann Gutenberg's printing press, which was modeled on Chinese presses and popularized through clever marketing, the technology became a tool for mass production.

However, it took the better part of another century for the technology to become a "mass medium," meaning that the majority of people accepted the content it produced as possessing a certain truth value. In other words, a long process of validation had to occur before it became socially acceptable to reference printed content as a source of knowledge. Only at the conclusion of this process did the printing press itself become a motor of social transformation.

Prior to this acceptance of the printed word, writing itself had little value in comparison to the spoken word. Even Plato, in the voice of Socrates, had initially voiced skepticism about the written word, arguing that it would cause the mind and memory to deteriorate. However, when writing itself was accepted into societies, it changed the social structure insofar that it enlarged social relations both spatially and temporally. Spatially, insofar as it became possible to transport lengthy and complicated messages over longer distances, thereby, for example, increasing the territory over which a monarch could effectively rule. Temporally, insofar as it became possible for a writer to transcend the present moment by leaving a message for a future reader, as well as making the message accessible to an unintended reader.

Up until the times when the printed word became widely accessible and socially acceptable, reading and writing were highly specialized practices that many cultures and societies permitted only their ruling elites and clergy to engage in. With the ready availability of written material through the printing press, though, the pressure to attain literacy grew among a wider audience while the output of information gradually increased. The printing press is often considered the most important invention of the millennium in its ability to democratize the written word and increase literacy rates in the modern world (Roos, 2019).

From Scripture to Printing. In her seminal, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Elisabeth Eisenstein described in meticulous detail the effects of the shift from scripture to printing, including the influence this technology had on the rise of the major movements that shaped early modernity (1980). Actually, only with the printing press and the mass production of literature did concepts like the author and authorship, the authenticity of writing, and the reader, readership, and audience—concepts that are taken for granted—arise. These concepts did not really exist in the world before the printing press. With its invention, though, the processes of standardization began to restructure the intellectual world. In a way, before the printing press, there existed several "Aristotles" or "Platos," and several Holy Scriptures. Depending on where one resided in the world, the scriptures could have significant variations, and the Aristotle one encountered in Paris was not the same Aristotle encountered in Rome. With the advent of the printing press, however, a technology arose that could create the one canonical "Holy Bible" or "Aristotle" that is known today.

With these developments concerning authorship and audience, the idea of the "public" emerged, which was a necessary condition for the development and proliferation of the ideas of a "nation" and a "modern democracy." The structural transformation of the public sphere, as Juergen Habermas would come to call it, began during this time and progressed throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries within the culture of the tea circle and the salon, public areas where Enlightenment ideals could be discussed and proliferated. The bourgeois, or burgher class, during this period, had ample leisure time to discuss the formation of the "nation" and the ideas of "republic" and "democracy." Alongside the formation of "public sphere" was the emergence of a new conception of "privacy": when "private citizens" came together and "reason" became the tool of science and the control of state power, it was thought that both the church's and the monarchy's power would be demystified.

In the twentieth century, however, this public sphere was gradually eliminated by capitalist consumerism as corporations began to take control of the old and the new mass media like radio, movies, and television. According to Habermas, the critical public, recruited from active citizens, was transformed by capitalist consumerism into a passive consumerist mass public. Thereby, people turned inward in pursuit of self-interest and instrumentalist reason, discarding a consensus-based communicative reason, which, according to Habermas, could further the democratic welfare of society and its citizens. In light of the effects other media have had on society, the nature of the Internet was still hotly disputed during its inception, with some critics seeing it as a beacon of hope for direct democracy and others as a symbol of increasing consumerism. In the 2020s, and with the Internet and social media permanent, yet always evolving, fixtures in modern mass media, this debate remained active.

Further Insights

Mass Media. The mass media has played and continues to play an important role in the formation and proliferation of democratic and liberal ideas. Next to the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government, the media has sometimes been named the fourth power. As such, modern democracy cannot remain unaffected by the technological changes that have transformed media. The Internet and social media have made the media in general more accessible, and while this has revolutionized society in beneficial ways, it is not without issues.

With the expansion of the Internet, as well as other advances in satellite communications, many social theorists stated their high hopes that the new information and communication technologies (IT/ICT) would offer new forms of democracy. E-government and e-learning, they claimed, would not only greatly improve government efficiency but also enable entirely new and improved forms of democratic participation. At the same time, though, critics such as Jean Baudrillard voiced concern about the effects that digital technology would have on our perception of reality, arguing that it could turn reality itself into a mere simulation. Most perversely, Baudrillard argued that Internet technology could even transform reality into the simulation of a simulation. His position was typified in his statement that the First Gulf War of 1990 was an event that actually "did not take place," for the media presented recycled images of the war in real-time, thereby creating the notion of two enemies fighting, while, in reality, very little was happening on the ground. The media thus created the simulation of the war, as the war existed only in the real-time transmissions of the mass media. As technology advanced, however, the media did become capable of producing images of events in real-time and not recycled updates presented to audiences on a delay. In the 2020s, there is little doubt that images in the mass media reflect true events.

Positions such as Baudrillard's, however, were often decried as being merely a deeply philosophical, speculative account. As technology advanced, these perspectives became increasingly obsolete. On a different and more sociological note, others argued that the development of mass media affected the metaphors and symbols that structure the narratives of biographies and identities (Stingl, 2007).

Effects of Mass Media on Identity. These effects of the mass media on identity can also be seen in the work of Palfrey and Grasser, which argued that a new generation of digital natives came of age in the early 2000s. The generation was born into a world in which digital technology was already so widespread that its use became part of their initial socialization and is thus second nature to them. This socialization has affected how they perceive and interact with social, cultural, and economic structures in the most profound ways, especially with regard to the exchange and the use of information. To the older generation, called digital immigrants, this new generation can appear as a strange paradox, for its members simultaneously appear very apt and sophisticated yet also narrow in scope and shallow in understanding. In many ways, the technological evolution of the mass media over the past several decades has created a digital generation gap. As the twenty-first century progressed, digital generation gaps were further created between the first digital natives and members of the millennial and Gen Z generations as the Internet and social media, as well as ongoing and perpetual advances in technology, dominate life in the 2020s.

This shift has also created new forms of collective memory and new temporal structures in our culture. In many ways, as Elena Esposito has shown in her works, these changes have affected how people perceive and react to contingencies (2003). Esposito repeatedly explored the shift from the "static past and uncertain/dynamic future" structure to a new one in which the use of technology required intense planning and organization to the point that all future contingencies had to be reduced (2003). In contrast, this same shift has made the past fluid and constantly reinterpretable, as is exemplified in Esposito's explication of how Internet search engines repeatedly create new catalogs of past events in constellations that had never before been thought of. Through planning and technology, the future has become static and the past fluid, and therefore, cultural memory has found a new form.

Viewpoints

In a consumerist culture, positive identification is tied to material possessions and the acquisition of services. It is arguable that the increasing speed of mass media development has been the engine behind the development of modern consumerism. First of all, the mass media is in itself—either through hardware components (e.g., computers, tablets, mobile phones, and satellite dishes) or through related services (e.g., weather forecasts, streaming services, endless applications, and music downloads)—made up of consumable items. Second, the mass media comprises the channels of advertisement. As a result, progressing technology has led to an increase in the volume and frequency of exposure to advertising. Any information an individual accesses on the Internet or social media in the 2020s is inextricably tied to an advertisement of some form.

Inequality. Of course, as society enters the digital age and becomes more dependent on information, new forms of inequality are arising, too. Just as the transformation of medieval society into the Gutenberg Galaxy necessitated that people learn to read, those who would not or could not acquire those skills sooner or later became a social underclass. This also happened to those who did not learn to effectively use mass media technologies like the Internet as quickly as others. As a result, these populations, mostly older generations or those without access to technology, ended up on the losing side of the so-called digital "divide." Although as technology advanced and access increased, this digital divide was reduced in many ways, in some ways, it was also widened. This pattern is likely to repeat as technology continues to evolve throughout the twenty-first century.

Similarly, the digitalization of information and the progress of technology in mass media caused older forms of mass media to enter an age of decline. The traditional newspaper lost its audience as ever more readers got their news online. For news outlets, this development caused them to lose profits on the one hand and to develop an Internet presence on the other. In the 2020s, many newspapers and magazines no longer offer print versions of their material.

With technological innovations, it became possible for people in nearly any location to record images and sound and write content. Information, even news information, can be created by anyone with access to the right tools and sent into the global data stream where, again, anyone with the right tools can access it. In effect, everyone has the potential to become a reporter, able to create content distributed through mass-media channels.

This would seem to be a realization of Andy Warhol's famous quip, "In the future everyone will be famous for fifteen minutes." At the same time, though, as the mass of content produced and distributed inflates, the number of actual receivers of each contribution deflates, raising the question of where the mass is in these media. The rise of social media and social media influencers has brought a new perspective to Warhol’s words.

Rise of Celebrities and Social Media Influencers. With the expansion of mass media, the number of celebrities has risen, as has an individual's access to them. In the early twentieth century, the mass media, through magazines and Internet gossip sites, ranked celebrities on A, B, and C lists. While reporters often helped "make" these celebrities in the first place, they also often disregarded the most basic rights of privacy. The classic paparazzo was increasingly replaced by an army of amateur reporters armed with camera phones, who, instead of selling their pictures and footage to news organizations, posted them directly on the Internet. The contents of these photos and videos very often jeopardized the security of personal information, and, overall, the effect was the advent of a post-privacy society. As traditional celebrities dealt with these issues, these issues allowed for the creation of a new kind of celebrity—the social media influencer. This micro-celebrity can be created in a smaller niche, and those wishing to monetize their public persona court this attention rather than attempt to divert public interest in private life (Lai, n.d). In another ethically fraught issue, these same developments in mass media technology can be used for surveillance purposes creatine a whole host of other issues and implications.

Conclusion

The socio-critical aspect of these developments lies in the question of who controls the technology and the channels of information. In an economy that increasingly rests on the flow of information, access to mass media technology and control over the distribution of content through media channels have become crucial foci of power. If the powers of access and regulation rest in the hands of the same entities that produce media technology or content (such as the owners of major news corporations), then the mass media may prove to be counterproductive to freedom and democracy. Indeed, political scientist Colin Crouch has proclaimed that the information age has created a society in a state of post-democracy (2004). As technology continued to advance throughout the twenty-first century, an ebb and flow of the availability of information and its ability to propagate or restrict freedom and democracy continued to be studied.

Terms & Concepts

Cultural Capital: The concept of cultural capital as a form of symbolic capital was made popular by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. In his work, Bourdieu showed that, besides monetary capital, other forms of capital—those comprising knowledge, network connections, and experience—can regulate access to social classes.

Digital Divide: The differences in access to and practical knowledge about the use of information technology, especially the Internet. The divide may exist between different kinds of demographic groups (e.g., age groups); between social classes; nationally, between rural and urban areas or between areas of greater or lesser economic interest to Internet service providers; or internationally, between developing and developed nations.

Digital Inequality: An effect of the digital divide in which those denied access to the use of or knowledge about Internet technology suffers political, social, or economic disadvantages as a result of that denial.

Digital Native: A term for people who are born into societies in which information technology permeates all aspects of everyday life, thus influencing socialization patterns. The reception and application of digital information are often second nature to digital natives.

Digital Society: A form of society in which electronically processed and stored information is a main constituent for the functions of society. Often discussed in contrast to the analog society, in which material products (i.e., the products of craftsmanship) are the main constituents. The distinction stems from that between analog and digital in information theory.

E-Government: E-Government, also known as e-gov, digital government, or online government, refers to the government's use of information and digital technologies to promote the free exchange of political information, communication between citizens and government agencies, and the use of government services. Different branches of government have also used information technology internally in order to increase efficiency. Private citizens have also found e-government more convenient for using government services or participating in political activities. In particular, people whose mobility is impaired by age, illness, or disability have been enabled to participate in the democratic process as well as independently work with government agencies.

E-Learning: A form of education in which learning takes place through the use of computer technology. Among other things, it encompasses the integration of computer technology into the traditional classroom, online courses and online colleges, free online education resources, and online corporate learning tools.

The concept of making knowledge freely available to everyone is a central tenant of the humanist ideal. E-learning, some say, can realize that promise by allowing everyone able to access the Internet to make use of e-learning resources. However, not all e-learning services are free. Online courses can come with high fees, and the quality of education available online, whether from commercial or non-profit sources, is quite variable. Still, the goal of providing everyone with the opportunity for higher education, regardless of factors like social status or work schedules, may be realizable with Internet technology.

I-Reporter: A citizen journalist or a person who, without professional journalism training or employment, researches and publishes news. As a movement, the practice is known as citizen journalism. In an information society, given the right technology, anyone can be an i-reporter. However, some critics call into question the quality of the products of citizen journalism, claiming that they are more sensational than actually newsworthy. Some i-reporters have even gotten themselves into dangerous situations trying to get sensational footage or photos. Critics also worry that i-reporters can infringe on privacy rights (e.g., in the case of celebrity news stories).

Information & Communication Technology (ICT): Summary names for technologies such as the Internet, mobile phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and personal computers that allow users to manipulate and communicate information.

Information Society: A form of society in which the production, distribution, use, and conservation of knowledge and information pervade all aspects of society, from the political to the economic and cultural sectors. The main source of power in this society is the control of the capillaries of access and transmission of information.

Media: In sociology, one can distinguish three different types of media: media of transmission, mass media, and symbolically generalized media. This distinction relates back to the works of Talcott Parsons and Niklas Luhmann, among others. In a very simple depiction of the distinction, one can say that media of transmission are the form in which information is stored and related from one sender to one receiver (oral speech, written word, or print or digital media). Mass media are technologies and social institutions that relate information from a sender to a mass of people (such as radio, newspapers, or the Internet). Symbolically generalized media are media that increase the likelihood of the acceptance of communication, such as money, power, or influence.

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Suggested Reading

Bittman, M., Rutherford, L., Brown, J., & Unsworth, L. (2012). Digital natives? New and old media and children's language acquisition. Family Matters, , 18–26. Retrieved November 15, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=85651283

Brienza, C., & Revers, M. (2016). The field of American media sociology: Origins, resurrection, and consolidation. Sociology Compass, 10(7), 539–552. Retrieved March 5, 2018 from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=116618460&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Castells, M. (2001). The Internet galaxy: Reflections on the Internet, business and society. New York: Oxford University Press.

Crossley, N. & Roberts, J. (2004). After Habermas: New perspectives on the public sphere. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Lash, S. & Urry, J. (1994). Economies of signs and space. London: Sage

Sanz, E., & Turlea, G. (2012). Downloading inclusion: A statistical analysis of young people's digital communication inequalities. Innovation: The European Journal Of Social Sciences, 25, 337–353. Retrieved November 15, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=83467960

Van Dijk, J. A. G. M. (2005). The deepening divide: Inequality in the information society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Warschauer, M. (2003). Technology and social inclusion: Rethinking the digital divide. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.