Typography

Summary

Typography is the art of designing proportionally spaced lettering arranged in the form of words, sentences, and blocks of text—also known as type. The central aim of typography is to create legible, readable, and aesthetically appealing textual material that clearly communicates its central message and is designed appropriately for its audience. The typographer is concerned with issues with the shape, size, and spacing of individual letterforms, as well as with the character and effect of different typefaces. The applications of typography are ubiquitous in daily life and can be found in every form of written communication, from books, newspapers, and advertising billboards to street signs, text on the Internet and social media, and email messages.

Definition and Basic Principles

Typography is the art and practice of designing, selecting, and placing letterforms into words, sentences, and blocks of type so that they may be either printed or electronically displayed in a digital format, such as on a website. Typography is a functional art, meaning that if practiced well, it does not call attention to itself. Instead, it is a means of facilitating the expression of an idea or ideas. For example, in environmental print, such as a sign indicating a traffic rule about where to turn, ensuring that the rule itself is clearly conveyed is more important than leading the viewer to admire the font in which it is displayed. Nevertheless, whether or not a written communication is attractive and easy to read are important factors in determining how well its message is understood and whether a viewer will continue reading a given piece of writing to the end.

The two fundamental principles of typography—the basic qualities that a typographer always strives to achieve—are readability and legibility. Readability can be defined as how easy a block of text is to read. Legibility can be defined as how quickly and easily individual words or phrases can be recognized by the reader. Myriad factors influence how easy a block of text is to read and how recognizable words and letters are. Among these are x-height, weight, font size, leading, kerning, margin size, the color of the type, the style of the lettering (italics, bold, and so on), and the choice of font or typeface, including whether the font is serif or sans serif. In addition, factors concerning the physiology of human vision, such as whether a reader has a vision disorder causing impaired eyesight or color blindness, can also affect readability and legibility.

Background and History

Typography originates from a very specific technological innovation, and therefore, its history, unlike that of many fields of science, has a definite start date. The birth of typography was in 1450, the year in or around the invention of the first mechanical movable-type printing press by German printer Johannes Gutenberg. "Movable type" refers to the fact that each letter is cast from a separate piece of metal so that the letters can be rearranged and reused for each new page. Previously, each page had to be carved into a piece of wood before it could be printed, a process known as woodblock printing. While movable type was not new, having been developed in China in the eleventh century, Gutenberg was the first European to use it, and he was the first person to mechanize the printing press. Gutenberg used his movable-type printing press to create the first printed book, the Gutenberg Bible.

Less than a hundred years later, printed books had reached vast numbers of readers, and specialized presses had been developed to print music scores. As a result, before long, the efficiency of the printing press rendered the art of calligraphy obsolete in most of Western Europe. Still, the roots of typography are evident, in that the three families of type that came to dominate Western printing—gothic, Roman, and italic—were all adapted from the writing styles of calligraphers.

In the nineteenth century, mechanical type, in which blocks of text for printing could be produced by manipulating an early version of a keyboard rather than by setting each letter of type individually, made the process of printing even faster and more practical. Later, phototypesetting transformed printing yet again. This technology involved projecting characters onto photographic film using large rotating drums.

Undoubtedly, the most significant advancement in typography during the twentieth century was the development of digital type. Characters in digital type do not have a physical form. Instead, they are stored as bitmaps (maps of colored and blank pixels) or, in the case of outline or vector fonts, converted into mathematical formulae that describe how the lines and curves of each figure should be displayed. Digital type has made desktop publishing—producing electronic versions of typographic documents, such as newspapers, posters, and even entire books—the easiest and most inexpensive way to distribute written communication. It also took typography from being almost exclusively the domain of professional typographers to being almost universally undertaken by everyday people, if often unconsciously.

How It Works

Typeface Anatomy. The standard typographic features associated with any given typeface are known collectively as anatomy, and the names of body parts are often used to describe the parts of letters. Typeface anatomy is useful because it allows typographers to break down a character into its individual parts and analyze, manipulate, or modify each component in isolation. The terms "baseline," "meanline," "x-height," and "cap height" are all used to help define the range of physical space occupied by characters. The baseline is an imaginary line denoting where characters seem to sit. A few letters, such as g and q, have parts that extend far below the baseline. The meanline is the invisible line that rests just on top of most lowercase letters, such as the tips of the arms in a lowercase y. The baseline and the meanline need a consistent relationship to the letters within a font. The x-height is the distance between the baseline and the meanline and corresponds to the height of the lowercase letter x. The cap height is the distance between the baseline and the tops of uppercase letters, such as H.

Many other elements of typeface anatomy pertain to the characters themselves. Ascenders and descenders, for instance, are any parts of a letter or symbol that extend above or below the meanline or baseline. The stem of a letter is its main body. Bars are any horizontal or diagonal lines that are open on at least one side, such as the three parallel lines in an uppercase E. If a bar connects two lines, as in the middle stroke of an uppercase H, it is known as a crossbar. If it serves as a base for it, as in the bottom stroke of an uppercase L, it is known as a leg. Bowls are circular lines that form a defined space, such as in the letters b and d. The inside of a bowl is known as a counter.

Ultimately, the anatomy of a typeface profoundly influences and affects the reader, including how readable and legible the text is. For example, typefaces with prominent ascenders and descenders and large, open bowls and counters are generally considered to be more readable than others. Serif fonts, in which letter strokes are finished with a slight projection, tend to be more readable when printed, while sans serif (without serif) fonts are easier to read on a computer screen. In addition, a typographer designing a font to be as legible as possible must attend to the frequent confusion between certain characters, including i and j and the letter o and the number 0.

Page Layout. Besides the qualities of the typeface itself, how words and sentences are arranged on the page is an important component of typographical design. Some conventions that seem intuitive were the result of careful thought on the part of typographers throughout history. For instance, the widespread use of the indent to indicate a new paragraph dates to the seventeenth century. Earlier, various other techniques had been employed to mark a new paragraph, such as placing of the first letter of the new paragraph in the margin rather than in the main body of the text.

Typographers are greatly concerned with using white space to proper effect. For example, when laying out a page of text, it is important that the leading (the vertical spaces between lines of text) not be too wide. This can make it harder for the reader's eye to travel from one line to the next. However, leading that is too narrow can make text less readable, as the ascenders in one line may become confused with the descenders of the previous line.

Kerning is another important aspect of spacing and layout. To kern is to selectively adjust the amount of space between particular letters or words in a block of type to achieve a desired effect. For example, a typographer may decrease the spaces between letters as the size of type on a page increases to keep the overall shape of the words uniform. Increasing the spaces between words also helps slow the reader down as they move through the text.

Digital Type. Digital type is the creation of electronic documents and other pieces of text (as opposed to the traditional production of print in physical form). Digitized fonts can be stored in one of two ways: bitmaps (a.k.a. rasters) or outlines (a.k.a. vectors).

Bitmaps are coded maps that deliver instructions to a computer program, telling it to turn on a specific set of pixels on the screen to form a particular character. The major drawback of bitmap fonts is that when they are scaled up and displayed in a larger size, the jagged edges of the individual pixels become increasingly evident, making the typefaces look uneven rather than smooth.

Most modern digital type is produced using outline fonts. These data sets in mathematical form deliver instructions to a computer program, describing particular characters as points on an outline. Because the lines between the points are not fixed, vector fonts can be scaled up or down without causing distortions.

Applications and Products

Print Publishing. Print publishing—producing materials, such as newspapers, magazines, and books—would not be possible without the effective use of typography. For example, the text found in newspapers and magazines is commonly set in a series of justified vertical columns. This layout allows publishers to squeeze in as many words of copy as possible without the page seeming cramped or cluttered. Because text in a newspaper or magazine serves so many purposes, parts of the copy are formatted differently so as to draw attention to their functions. Headlines are set in larger, bold type, while captions may be set in smaller type or italicized. The demands of book publishing are slightly different. A reader generally holds a book at arm's length, looking at it straight on without moving their head from side to side. This enables the typographer to space letters more closely together without compromising readability.

Desktop Publishing. Copy designed to be read on the upright, brightly backlit, sometimes rather small computer screen requires different typographical techniques than that designed to be printed on paper. For example, one difference between the two formats is the relatively low resolution of most contemporary computer screens—typically between 85 and 300 pixels per inch—compared with printed materials' resolution, which is around 2,500 dots per inch. This constraint led typographers to realize although serif fonts are easier to read on the printed page, sans serif fonts are much easier to read on a screen.

Advertising. Typography plays a pivotal role in nearly every form of advertising, from billboards and subway posters to brochures, logos, and television tag lines. How a designer handles the type, or copy, in an advertisement can have an enormous impact on the bottom line of the business placing the advertisement. Far more than in a book or a newspaper, where the content is usually more important to consumers than how it is presented, typographical choices in an advertisement can either drive away or draw in a viewer. One of the biggest typographical decisions a company can make is how it presents its brand name in a logo. If done successfully and used consistently, the color, weight, spacing, and font used to display a brand name can become so recognizable that the typeface itself, even if seen in a different context, is enough of a signature to create instant brand recognition on the part of the viewer. For example, the connection consumers made between the brand identity of Swedish furniture giant Ikea and the typeface the company used—a customized version of the sans serif font Futura—was so powerful that in 2009, when Ikea started using Verdana, a font with a taller x-height and more rounded ascenders, on posters and in its catalog instead, many consumers complained vigorously.

Signage. Way-finding signage, any form of visual communication intended to direct people to where they need to go, is one of the most functional applications of typography. In this context, unlike in advertising, the message conveyed by the sign, rather than the mood or emotion suggested by the chosen typeface, is paramount. Still, typographical choices are just as crucial. The words on a way-finding sign must be readable and legible to the viewer as quickly as possible because many such signs are read by someone passing by on foot or in a vehicle.

Typography has been used by the United States (US) Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) to improve the effectiveness of signage, including a redesign of highway road sign standards. The old standard typeface, known as Highway Gothic, was specially designed for highway legibility in the 1940s. However, by the twenty-first century, some experts expressed concern that it was too difficult to comprehend, especially when signs contained mixed uppercase and lowercase letters or when viewed by older drivers with poor eyesight. The FHWA hired a design firm to create an entirely new typeface known as Clearview, in which the letters were about the same weight, but the interior shapes—bowls and counters—were larger and more open. In addition, lowercase letters in Clearview were heavier, distinguishing them more clearly from uppercase letters. In 2004, several states began replacing their old signs with Clearview signs. Initial studies of the readability and legibility of the signs found that drivers can determine their meanings from up to 200 feet away. However, in 2016, the FHWA retracted its plans to use Clearview further, citing studies that found early positive studies were based upon comparison to old, worn signs using Highway Gothic and that Clearview was harder to read in certain circumstances, including signs with dark text on a light background. Though signs already erected in Clearview were allowed to remain, all future replacements would revert to Highway Gothic.

Careers and Course Work

In the past, typography was a specialized expertise on which a professional could base their entire career. In the digital age, it has generally become one of a suite of skills associated with a career in graphic design, advertising, communications, packaging design, and software design, though specialization still occurs. Preparation for such a career should begin with any courses available in computer science at the high school level, such as computer graphics, software engineering, and computer-aided design (CAD). Traditional fine arts courses in drawing, sketching, printmaking, and the graphic arts are also appropriate.

Several schools of the arts offer typography certificates, diplomas, or associate degree programs. However, students who intend to complete a Bachelor's degree should consider concentrating in areas, such as computer science, computer graphics, graphic design, or visual communications. The most important skills required for any professional working with typography are those that pertain to specific pieces of software commonly used in the industry. These include Adobe products, such as InCopy and InDesign and the desktop publishing software XML Professional Publisher.

Social Context and Future Prospects

Typography is a powerful instrument of communication. As such, it can potentially influence the beliefs, behaviors, and ideas of its audience in both positive and negative ways. Choices about fonts, spacing, and layout on a poster urging residents of a city to use less water, for instance, could have an important impact on the effectiveness of an environmental intervention. However, smart typographical techniques used to create propaganda materials or pamphlets containing hate speech could help spread incendiary ideas more effectively. Every typographical artifact, from an email exchange between friends to a billboard by the side of the highway—no matter the message—creates a medium of expression that conveys far more than just the meanings of the words it contains.

With the advent of desktop publishing and software tools that enable anyone to design a customized font and publish their own writings, typography is swiftly becoming a democratized field that is virtually without barriers to entry. Among other benefits, this has allowed widespread experimentation with type, including developing countless custom typefaces that often blur the lines between typography as an applied science and an art form. It has also given rise to the creation and easy availability of expressive or themed typefaces—those that aim to overtly convey an emotion or mood rather than focus on legible communication. While often popular among the general public, such typefaces are commonly derided by trained typographers and other design experts as kitschy and poor at conveying information. Consequently, some consider typography to be increasingly divided into the realm of professionals, who rely on ongoing scientific research and technological development for specialized applications, and the realm of everyday people, who consume text and often produce it in informal and nontraditional ways.

Similarly, typography is subject to trends, much like any art form, including music and fashion. While serif fonts remained popular in 2023, the trend in 2024 included a move to bold and expressive fonts. Animation and color were also included in the 2024 trends. Artificial intelligence began to analyze reactions to typeface and design accordingly, and typography became more emotionally expressive. 

Another significant twenty-first-century concern of typography is making text legible across various digital platforms, such as a laptop computer and a smartphone. Factors that must be considered—beyond the well-established differences between digital and print typography—include screen size and resolution variations, adaptivity to technology, such as accelerometers or motion sensors that alter display orientation on phones and tablet computers, and other issues of scale and functionality. Other ongoing issues include designing a type that is inclusive of those with disabilities and effective for use in multilingual contexts.

Bibliography

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Brownie, Barbara. Transforming Type: New Directions in Kinetic Typography. Bloomsbury, 2015.

Coles, Stephen. The Anatomy of Type: A Graphic Guide to 100 Typefaces. New York: Harper, 2012.

Deer, Tova Rabinowitz. Exploring Typography. Cengage Learning, 2016.

Graham, Lisa. Basics of Design: Layout & Typography for Beginners. 2nd ed. Cengage Learning, 2005.

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Kubel, Henrik, and Scott Williams. New Perspectives in Typography. Laurence King Publishing, 2015.

Strizver, Ilene. Type Rules! The Designer's Guide to Professional Typography. 4th ed. Hoboken: Wiley, 2014.

“Typography in 2023: Trends and Opportunities in Graphic Design and Typography.” Park University, 2 Jan. 2024, www.park.edu/blog/typography-in-2023-trends-and-opportunities-in-graphic-design-and-typography. Accessed 4 June 2024.

Velychko, Artem. “Flexible Typography: The Future Standard.” Medium, 2 May 2023, medium.com/@artm.design/flexible-typography-the-future-standard-5bc68d7e648d. Accessed 4 June 2024.