Popular Health Movement
The Popular Health Movement emerged in the early nineteenth century in the United States as a reaction against conventional medical practices of the time, which were often viewed with skepticism. This movement promoted nontraditional healing methods, particularly the use of herbal remedies, as many individuals sought alternatives to the harsh techniques commonly employed by physicians, such as bloodletting and the use of toxic substances like calomel (mercurous chloride). Influenced by broader populist sentiments following the election of Andrew Jackson, many Americans began to challenge the authority of the medical establishment, leading to the abolition of licensing requirements for doctors in many states.
Key figures in this movement included Samuel Thomson, who advocated for plant-based remedies and believed in the healing properties of heat and detoxification. His ideas laid the groundwork for the eclectic medicine movement, which encouraged practitioners to freely choose the best treatments from various medical systems. Another prominent reformer, Sylvester Graham, focused on dietary practices, promoting vegetarianism and whole grains, and earned fame for his invention of Graham crackers. Additionally, philosophies like hydropathy and homeopathy gained traction during this period, further diversifying the landscape of medical treatment and reflecting a growing interest in natural healing approaches.
Popular Health Movement
DEFINITION: An early nineteenth-century health movement in the United States that promoted nontraditional medical treatment, in particular the use of herbal remedies, and opposed traditional medicine.
Overview
The popular health movement of the early nineteenth century led many Americans to react with skepticism to doctors and common medical practices at the time. People turned instead to forms of treatment that did not involve doctors and often involved herbal remedies. Several factors led to this skepticism.
Beginning in the eighteenth century, doctors claimed knowledge, or expertise, beyond common understanding. This specialized knowledge led to a rise in status and authority for doctors and was symbolized by the increasing use of Latin terms to describe medical conditions, placing the language of doctors beyond the grasp of most people. Despite claims of expertise, medical practice of the time was often harsh to the point of brutality, and it was still common for physicians to use techniques such as bloodletting by cutting veins or applying leeches. One of the most commonly prescribed drugs was calomel (mercurous chloride), which was acknowledged to have severe toxic side effects.
A second factor influencing the popular health movement was the mood of the country following the election of Andrew Jackson to the U.S. presidency in 1828. Populistic sentiments were directed against those described as elites, which included politicians and doctors. Just as politics during this time promoted the idea of democracy as a popular movement and expanded the vote to all white men, the country reacted against the specialized authority of doctors. One effect of this reaction was the abolition by most states of requirements that doctors be licensed.
A third factor in the development of the popular health movement was that many people became attracted to philosophical and artistic approaches and the idea of allowing nature to direct healing during this period. This was reflected in the wide interest in botanical remedies.
Thomsonianism
One of the leading figures of the popular health movement was Samuel Thomson, born in New Hampshire to a farming family. Thomson became a leading proponent of herbal cures, which he learned from a woman in his community. He had witnessed his mother die of measles as conventional doctors could not cure her. Later, after his wife grew ill and doctors stopped treating her, Thomson’s wife responded positively to herbal healing. He later used similar methods to treat a son and a daughter, strengthening his belief in herbal cures.
Thomson’s cures were largely plant-based. His book describing his system was published as New Guide to Health: Or, Botanic Family Physician (1822). However, the use of plants was part of a more complex system of belief.
Thomson, who believed that illness came from exposure to cold, argued that keeping the body warm would prevent illness. He applied heat to the body externally and internally with steam baths and cayenne peppers. His system also included expressing the body of toxins, which involved using laxatives and emetics such as the Lobelia plant for therapeutic vomiting. Thomson’s relationship with conventional physicians was not good, as he arrogantly rejected treatments that were not based on his own system.
Eclectic Medicine and Grahamism
Eclectic medicine. Eventually, healers who were interested in Thomson’s herbal cures but also in more conventional medicine found themselves breaking with Thomson. The physician Wooster Beach, who used Thomson’s botanical idea but disagreed with him on other issues, founded a medical school in 1829 as part of the new eclectic medicine movement. This movement argued that physicians should choose freely from any idea or medical system they believed would help their patients. Within the eclectic movement, Thomson’s ideas on the use of plants could be used without Thomson’s restrictions, which included rejecting the study of physiology and anatomy. The eclectic medicine movement remained influential for a century, lasting until the 1920s.
Grahamism. Probably the most influential health reformer of the early nineteenth century after Thomson was Sylvester Graham, a Presbyterian preacher from Connecticut. Although Graham had no medical training, he had great public influence, particularly on dietary practices. His name is perhaps best known in relation to “Graham crackers,” which he invented. Graham also was a strong proponent of vegetarianism and of temperance in general, advocating restrictions on alcohol consumption and sexual activity. He urged the consumption of dark, whole-wheat breads free of the common chemical additives of the time. During the cholera epidemic, his advice concerning health appeared to benefit many people, leading to a widespread belief that his methods were reliable. In 1837, he published his first book, Treatise on Bread and Bread-Making.
Other philosophies of medicine and treatment also became popular. These included hydropathy, with baths as a basic element, and homeopathy, operating from the idea that like treats like. Homeopathy opposed the methods of allopathy, or traditional medicine, which treated disease with substances unrelated to illness.
Bibliography
Burbick, Joan. Healing the Republic: The Language of Health and the Culture of Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century America. New ed., Cambridge University Press, 2009.
“Every Man His Own Physician: Thomsonianism.” In Nature Cures: A History of Alternative Medicine in America, edited by James C. Whorton. Oxford University Press, 2004.
He, Angela. “Thomsonian Medicine: Herbalism, Home Remedies, and Popular Distrust of Professional Medical Training in 19th-Century America.” Bernard Becker Medical Library, 12 Jan. 2022, becker.wustl.edu/news/thomsonian-medicine-herbalism-home-remedies-and-popular-distrust-of-professional-medical-training-in-19th-century-america. Accessed 20 Sept. 2024.
Hoffman, Beatrix. “Health Care Reform and Social Movements in the United States.” American Journal of Public Health, vol. 93, no. 1, 2003, pp. 75-85. doi.org/10.2105/ajph.93.1.75. Accessed 22 Nov. 2024.
“Samuel Johnson Ridicules Modern Medicine.” New England Historical Society, newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/samuel-thomson-ridicules-modern-medicine. Accessed 20 Sept. 2023.
Whorton, James C. “The History of Complementary and Alternative Medicine.” In Essentials of Complementary and Alternative Medicine, edited by Wayne B. Jonas and Jeffrey S. Levin. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999.