Cultural Intelligence

Abstract

Cultural intelligence is the ability to adapt to various cultural contexts and function in different cultural settings or with those of a different culture in one's own setting. Cultural intelligence was introduced in 2003 by Earley and Ang, two researchers who believed that an individual's ability to successfully manage situations in which others from different cultures are present had been overlooked in intelligence research. Cultural intelligence shares aspects of emotional and social intelligence, in that it describes a person's ability to function well in different situations, but neither emotional nor social intelligence consider the cultural context. Cultural intelligence focuses on the ability to function successfully across culturally diverse situations.

Overview

Attempts at measuring and quantifying human intelligence have a long history. The effort to invent a valid and reliable assessment for intelligence can be traced back hundreds of years, and the work has continued to be prevalent in the twentieth century. Researchers have endeavored to measure intelligence through psychometric testing such as the Stanford-Binet intelligence test, increasing testing in schools, and through classification of people into various groups. The most prevalent term associated with intelligence testing is the intelligence quotient, or IQ, which is purported to measure g, or general intelligence. A host of tests that measure IQ have been implemented and used in schools and places of work throughout the world.

Theories of Intelligence. Despite the wealth of research regarding human intelligence and the variety of attempts to easily quantify it, the assessment of human intelligence remains imperfect and controversial. Many argue that modern standard intelligence testing is biased and only measures a very narrow picture of what intelligence is. Thus, there have been a host of critics who offer breaks from the traditional models of intelligence. The most prominent of these theories include Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences and Sternberg's triarchic model of intelligence, which suggest other "types" of intelligence, such as emotional or social intelligence. All these models have been widely used and referenced by educators.

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences. The theory of multiple intelligences, developed and introduced by Howard Gardner in 1983, outlines a theory of intelligence that purports to move beyond IQ or g (general intelligence). Gardner criticized the general intelligence theory that had been prevalent since the early twentieth century because he saw two key limitations. First, the measures used to determine g were too variable. Second, the theory was too narrow—based on western educational models that heavily emphasized literacy and mathematical abilities (Gardner, 1983).

Gardner's original model, which has evolved over time, cited eight different types of intelligences. They include:

• Verbal-linguistic,
• Logical-mathematical,
• Visual-spatial,
• Musical,
• Bodily-kinesthetic,
• Naturalist,
• Interpersonal, and
• Intrapersonal.

The first two intelligences were those that are most typically addressed in the western education system, while the last two are what Gardner (1983) terms "personal" intelligences. Other intelligences have been added to the list since the original seven were introduced. Gardner's theory highly impacted curriculum and instruction. Educators continue to research and discuss the implementation of the theory in the classroom.

Sternberg's Triarchic Model. Another model of intelligence widely referenced in education research is the triarchic model, developed by Robert Sternberg, which includes three facets:

• Analytic,
• Creative, and
• Practical skills.

In the model, analytical intelligence refers to the classical model of intelligence—one's ability to solve academic problems. Creative intelligence allows individuals to think creatively and adjust creatively in new situations. Finally, practical intelligence has often been described as "street smarts," or knowing how to fit into an environment to make yourself most successful. Sternberg's model was created as a reaction to intelligence testing, or traditional psychometric measures of intelligence.

Emotional & Social Intelligence. Emotional and social intelligence (Mayer & Salovey, 1997) are often discussed in conjunction with one another. Emotional intelligence refers to an individual's ability to interpret and react properly to others. Social intelligence is closely related to emotional intelligence and defined as the ability to empathize with and effectively manage people.

Emotional and social intelligence share several similarities with cultural intelligence. All three are abilities rather than behaviors, and all three types of intelligence move beyond academic and general intelligence. However, there are also differences between emotional or social intelligence and cultural intelligence. For example, neither emotional nor social intelligence consider cultural context when discussing a person's ability to perceive and manage emotions and social situations.

Cultural Intelligence (CQ) Culture can be defined in various ways. In this context, culture encompasses the shared attitudes, beliefs, goals, and traditions that characterize a group of people. Culture can affect how individuals act and work with others, and culture can also act as a lens through which individuals or groups view and react to the actions of those in other groups. Cultural intelligence is generally a newly minted term, but not necessarily a new concept. We have all seen how different individuals can navigate situations well or poorly, based on their knowledge of the other person's culture.

Seeing a need to account for the cultural contexts of situations, the differences in how people react within them, and how successful individuals were in the outcomes of these situations, Earley and Ang (2003) developed and introduced the theory of cultural intelligence in their book, Cultural Intelligence: Individual Interactions Across Culture. The theory is applicable to the disciplines of social sciences and management (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008), and specifically addresses the issue of recognizing and managing cultural issues that emerge in our interactions with others.

Earley and Ang's research was largely fueled by the unparalleled and increasing globalization occurring throughout the world. Advancements in technology are allowing different groups of people to communicate and travel as never before. As a result, businesses and governments have become increasingly global in scope, and more interconnected and dependent as never before. These factors are necessitating more and more interactions between and across individuals and groups that have different cultural backgrounds. Earley and Ang (2003) sought to highlight what they believed was an essential component in these interactions, and to provide more directions for additional research on the topic of cultural intelligence.

While globalization and increased communication between various groups have a multitude of positive outcomes, another central issue is the differences in ideology and culture present in these new interactions that could potentially lead to conflict on small and large scales. Consequently, the theory of cultural intelligence has also been applied to help individuals and organizations manage these potential conflicts, through increased training in cultural intelligence.

Cultural intelligence indicates an individual's ability to adapt to various cultural contexts, and function at a high level across different cultural settings or in situations where he or she does not share the same cultural background as others (Earley & Ang, 2003). Cultural intelligence is not a new concept; it is related to other types of intelligence that have been introduced by social scientists. What sets it apart, however, is that cultural intelligence specifically takes into account the impact of the culture or cultural setting in which an individual may find himself. Earley & Ang (2003) note that while culture does not necessarily influence everything, there are many variations in daily activities and behaviors which culture and cultural differences affect. They also distinguish cultural intelligence from previously discussed categories of intelligence, such as emotional and social intelligence. While cultural intelligence shares aspects of those types of intelligence, the culture of the setting does not always impact an individual's social or emotional intelligence. The primary focus in developing the theory was to help researchers find a new framework in research concerning a person's functionality in a newly globalized world.

Ang and Van Dyne (2008) differentiate cultural intelligence from other types of intelligence in several ways. For example, while cultural intelligence may have elements of emotional intelligence, there are distinct differences. They describe emotional intelligence as "culture bound" and cultural intelligence as "culture free." In other words, a person with high emotional intelligence in one cultural context may not possess it in another; cultural intelligence focuses on a person's ability to make choices and behave appropriately across cultures generally. Cultural intelligence has its foundation in the work of many theorists and researchers but is especially based on Triandis' Analysis of Subjective Culture (1972), which discusses how individuals across different cultures perceive and react to their social settings.

When Earley and Ang first theorized cultural intelligence in 2003, it was based on three elements—cognitive, motivational, and behavioral. Later, the metacognitive element was added. Cultural intelligence is classified specifically under the umbrella of ability or capability, rather than a personality or an interest under the field of individual differences. Ang and Van Dyne (2008) note that while personality is fairly established, an individual's capability in various areas can be strengthened or changed through one's education or experiences. Also, the authors contend that cultural intelligence is not specific to any one culture or region. Rather, it encompasses all culturally diverse situations.

Four Elements of CQ Like other views of intelligence, cultural intelligence is a multifaceted ability. It can be broken down into four elements that all contribute to the larger measure of cultural intelligence (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008).

Cognitive CQ is an individual's knowledge of different cultures, based on their breadth of experiences.

Motivational CQ refers to the amount of effort that an individual puts towards functioning in new cultural situations.

Behavioral CQ is the individual's aptitude in acting suitably in cross-cultural situations, in both verbal and nonverbal behaviors.

Metacognitive CQ refers to one's level of consciousness of culture during cross-cultural interactions with others. Actively being aware of and thinking about different cultural settings and the repercussions of one's actions in these settings helps individuals choose more culturally appropriate tactics to achieve their outcomes in cross-cultural encounters.

According to the original theorists, the four dimensions of cultural intelligence are all related in various ways. All the dimensions can be improved, thus improving overall cultural intelligence, based on experiences and how one reacts to those experiences.

The Cultural Intelligence Center (CQC) states that there are many benefits to increasing one's cultural intelligence. These benefits include "enhances sensitivity to cultural differences, reduces use of overly simplistic stereotypes, enhances adjustment and relationships in multi-cultural contexts, and improves decision-making and work performance in multi-cultural contexts" (CQC, 2007).

The breadth of impact that the introduction of cultural intelligence will have remains to be seen. On a larger scale, Earley & Ang (2003) discuss how culture can influence the governance, language, beliefs, and customs of a society. These differences between cultures can impact how individuals and groups approach and react to others, and understanding these cultural norms could influence the success of an organizational venture. An individual's reaction to situations in which culture plays a part in the interaction could have consequences such as securing a partnership with an organization or being able to fit into a new environment when on assignment in a different country. Shannon & Begley (2008) contend that the concept of cultural intelligence directly addressed a new need in business—the ability to work and interact with individuals and groups that come from diverse cultural circumstances.

There has been little research relating cultural intelligence specifically to education, but culture and diversity in teaching and learning have long been discussed in educational research. In relation to education, learning has been shown to have associations to a variety of constructs—norms, values, habits—aspects of one's culture that may affect how an individual most successfully learns.

Applications

Since its inception, the cultural intelligence concept has been applied to a wide variety of disciplines, including business, government, and education. Shannon & Begley (2008) contend that cultural intelligence meets the needs of the ever-increasing numbers of organizations that are becoming more globally diverse, and in turn, finding escalating diversity in their work forces.

Cultural Intelligence in Education. The benefits of increasing one's cultural intelligence may also have increasingly important consequences in the field of education in the United States and around the world. American students are becoming increasingly diverse in all aspects—race, ethnicity, class, gender, age, and language. Wlodkowski and Ginsberg (1995) noted that the United States, beginning in the mid-1990s, began to reject the idea of a "melting pot" in which all individuals assimilated towards a philosophy that supported pluralism; that all members shared a larger social structure while maintaining their own identity within that structure. With this movement of pluralism, the concept of cultural intelligence becomes salient, beginning in schools.

As Earley and Ang (2003) note, an increase in diversity can also lead to an increase in misunderstandings and conflicts between people and groups. These conflicts may be minor, between individuals, but can escalate to major conflicts involving large organizations or groups. They contend that having high cultural intelligence can help individuals and organizations navigate these cultural differences, and lead to successful ventures. This increasing diversity, and the possible positive impact of high cultural intelligence, is unquestionably an interesting research question in modern education. The racial and ethnic composition of schools in the United States is changing drastically. Students are more likely than ever before to work in fields with a diverse group of individuals and have to interact with individuals from a diverse array of cultures and backgrounds.

Within schools, student demographics are changing drastically. In 1966, only 20 percent of all public school students were part of a minority group. By 2018, this number had jumped to 53 percent of all public school students (NCES, 2021). These new classes of students bring with them new languages, traditions, and challenges for educators, including the question of if and how to teach or improve cultural intelligence in schools.

Additional research into cultural intelligence may also be helpful in addressing educational inequalities across various groups. The 2021 data from the National Center for Education Statistics found that in 2019, high school dropout rates of White students was 4.1 percent, compared to 5.6 percent and 7.7 percent of Black and Hispanic students, respectively. In addition, the dropout rate of Pacific Islander students was 8 percent and American Indian/Alaska Native students was 9.6 percent, while students who were two or more races had a 5.1 percent dropout rate. The NCES defined a dropout as any individual between the ages of sixteen and twenty-four who was either not enrolled in a high school or lacked a high school diploma or General Educational Development (GED) certificate. Since the dropout rates of minority students in the United States are higher than the country's White students, additional research into the impact of the level of cultural intelligence on issues of retention may be helpful in understanding and curbing dropout rates.

The concept of cultural intelligence may also have an impact on teaching practices, and curriculum development in schools. Studies have indicated that culture may be very important to the learning process. Sternberg (2008) cited a study in which students in Alaska were split into two random groups. The two groups were taught math topics in two different ways. The control group's teaching method was non-culture specific; the treatment group's curriculum featured culture specific instruction. When students were tested, those who received culture specific instruction significantly outperformed the control group. When taught using culture specific methods, students who received culturally specific instruction learned more than their peers who received control group instruction. Thus, cultural intelligence may also be important for educators as well.

Valid and reliable measures of intelligence continue to be sought after in the field of psychology. Indeed, intelligence, no matter which type, continues to be a most elusive and obscure concept. There are many tests and measures used to quantify various types of intelligence, from general intelligence to emotional intelligence. In 2007, a psychometric measure of cultural intelligence was developed, called CQS. This instrument consisted of four dimensions, including motivation, an aspect of cultural intelligence often overlooked by other researchers. Early research has found that cultural intelligence has correlations with certain personality factors. However, additional testing of the evaluation was necessary to make conclusions regarding these correlations (Shannon & Begley, 2008). In the 2010s and early 2020s, the instrument's validity was tested in a variety of settings and gained confidence with researchers (Sternberg et al., 2021).

Viewpoints

Earley and Ang (2003) argue that as countries and organizations around the world become more multicultural, and interact with one another, increased cultural intelligence will be necessary to become a leader or manager. They hypothesize that individuals with high CQ will be able to gather accurate information more effectively across cultures, and thus make more informed decisions based on nuanced information. There is also an additional need for individuals to be aware of their own CQ so that they can improve upon the findings, opening more opportunities for themselves in a changing work environment.

Early research indicates that cultural intelligence has significant implications for further research, as it relates to other personality factors and has been shown to predict how professionals will adjust in culturally diverse situations (Ang, et al., in press). As an extremely new concept in the realm of intelligence theory and intelligence testing, there are many more research questions that need to be answered regarding the place of CQ in organizations and as a useful concept in our lives.

As a concept that has been primarily geared to leaders in fields of business or expatriates, how cultural intelligence can be applied to education warrants further investigation. There are several areas in which the concept of cultural intelligence could have interesting research possibilities in the field of education, including curriculum development, teaching methods, and effective teacher attributes. These areas can heavily impact learning and mastery of a skill, and research focused on issues such as developing culturally sensitive curriculum or the success of a teacher who has high cultural intelligence may help educators and policymakers make decisions on issues such as what to include in curriculum, or the focus of professional development for teachers and school administrators.

As cultural intelligence applies especially to leaders of organizations, school leaders and those who shape educational policy may stand to gain significantly from additional research in cultural intelligence. As these school and policy leaders continue to serve a population of students that is increasingly diverse, and train teachers who are teaching these pluralistic groups of students, they must have the tools necessary to help all students be successful learners and attain the skills necessary to be successful in the future.

Cultural intelligence is a new topic, with many research questions left unanswered. Like any other theory on intelligence, it has already gone through several transformations, and will be subject to many more. As researchers study this theory in the context of education, it may affect how students are taught, how teachers are trained, and the policies and procedures of school leaders and policymakers.

Terms & Concepts

Assimilation: Assimilation is the process by which a minority group adapts to the customs and attitudes of the dominant group.

Cultural Pluralism: A departure from the idea of a melting pot; instead, all members of a society share a larger social structure while maintaining their own identity and culture within that structure.

Emotional Intelligence: An individual's ability to interpret and react properly to others.

g: The scientific designation for general intelligence.

Psychometrics: The field of educational measurement, including IQ testing.

Social Intelligence: The ability to empathize with and effectively manage people.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences: The theory of multiple intelligences was introduced by Howard Gardner in 1983, and outlines seven different intelligences, including verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

Triarchic Model of Intelligence: The triarchic model of intelligence was developed by Robert Sternberg, which includes three facets of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical skills.

Bibliography

Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C.K.S., Ng, K.Y., Templer, K.J., Tay, C., & Chandrasekar, N.A. (2007). Cultural intelligence: Its measurement and effects on cultural judgment and decision making, cultural adaptation, and task performance. Management and Organization Review, 3(3) 335–371. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8784.2007.00082.x

Coleman, J.S. (1966). Equality of Educational Opportunity. Office of Education.

Cultural Intelligence Center. (2007). Benefits of CQ. Retrieved July 23, 2009, from Cultural Intelligence Center Web Site: http://www.culturalq.com/benefits.html

Earley, P.C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures. Stanford University Press.

Elenkov, D.S. & Pimental, J.R.C. (2008). Social intelligence, emotional intelligence, and cultural Intelligence: An integrative perspective. In S. Ang & L. Van Dyne (Eds.), Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, measurement, and applications. M.E. Sharpe.

Farrell, J. What is cultural intelligence? Breaking down the buzzword. EW Group. Retrieved July 28, 2021, from https://theewgroup.com/what-is-cultural-intelligence

Gardner, Howard. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. Basic Books.

Ghonsooly, B., & Shalchy, S. (2013). Cultural intelligence and writing ability: Delving into fluency, accuracy and complexity. Novitas-ROYAL, 7, 147-159. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=91706851&site=ehost-live

Keung, E.K., & Rockinson-Szapkiw, A.J. (2013). The relationship between transformational leadership and cultural intelligence: A study of international school leaders. Journal of Educational Administration, 51, 836-854. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90608803&site=ehost-live

Mayer, J.D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators. Basic Books.

Racial/ethnic enrollment in public schools. (2023, May). National Center Education Statistics. Retrieved May 28, 2023, from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cge

Rockstuhl, T., Seiler, S., Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., & Annen, H. (2011). Beyond general intelligence (IQ) and emotional intelligence (EQ): The role of cultural intelligence (CQ) on cross-border leadership effectiveness in a globalized world. Journal of Social Issues, 67, 825-840. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=69604603&site=ehost-live

Shannon, L.M. & Begley, T.M. (2008). Antecedents of the four-factor model of cultural intelligence. In S. Ang & L. Van Dyne (Eds.), Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, measurement, and applications. M.E. Sharpe.

Status dropout rates. (2023, May). National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved May 28, 2023, from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/coj

Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of intelligence. Cambridge University Press.

Sternberg, R.J. (2007). Who are the bright children? The cultural context of being and acting intelligent. Educational Researcher, 36(3), 148–155. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X07299881

Sternberg, R.J. (2008). Successful intelligence as a framework for understanding cultural adaptation. In S. Ang & L. Van Dyne (Eds.), Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, measurement, and applications. M.E. Sharpe.

Sternberg, R. J., Wong, C. H., & Kreisel, A. P. (2021). Understanding and Assessing Cultural Intelligence: Maximum-Performance and Typical-Performance Approaches. Journal of Intelligence, 9(3), 45. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence9030045

Triandis, H.C. (1972). The analysis of subjective culture. Wiley-Interscience.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2009). The Condition of Education 2009. NCES.

Wlodkowski, R.J. & Ginsberg, M.B. (1995). Diversity and motivation: Culturally responsive teaching. Jossey-Bass Publishers

Suggested Reading

Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C.S.K, & Ng, K.Y. (2004). The measurement of cultural intelligence. Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, New Orleans. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8784.2007.00082.x

Brislin, R., Worthley, R., & Macnab, B. (2006). Cultural intelligence: Understanding behaviors that serve people's goals. Group and Organization Management, 31(1), 40–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601105275262

Earley, P.C. & Mosakowski, E. (2004). Cultural Intelligence. Harvard Business Review, 82, 139-146. Retrieved July 23, 2009, from EBSCO online database, Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=14600043&site=ehost-live

Sternberg, R.J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2006). Cultural intelligence and successful intelligence. Group and Organization Management, 31(1), 27-39. http://doi.org/10.1177/1059601105275255