Geopolitics

The broad strokes that attempt to define the concept of geopolitics may be the primary reason for misinterpretations (both inadvertent and sinister) of this theory. These misunderstandings, if unchecked, may contribute to flawed or even dangerous foreign policy development. Still, there are some undeniable truths contained within the overarching notion of geopolitics; elements that may play a positive role in creating effective foreign policy in the modern world. This paper takes a closer look at the concept of geopolitics and its role, both real and perceived, in the 20th and 21st century global environment.

Keywords Geopolitical; Globalization; Inter-governmental Organizations; International Relations; Non-governmental Organization

International Business > Geopolitics

Overview

In 1904, the British geographer, Sir Halford Mackinder, observed the countless British naval bases used to launch into the Empire's holdings around the world. He speculated that the only element that could strike fear into British colonialists despite its obvious naval power was an even greater power. If a nation were to take possession of what he called the "World Island" (namely, the giant land mass that contains Europe, Asia and Africa), the British Empire would fall.

German General Karl Haushofer, whose political views were influenced heavily by Mackinder's ideas, would later take the pursuit of the World Island quite seriously. He approached Adolph Hitler, who at the time was writing his seminal work, Mein Kampf, from prison, and promoted what would become his life's work — the formation of an enormous alliance consisting of Germany, Japan, India, Russia and China, all united against Britain. Haushofer's credo would generate a significant propaganda campaign that claimed invasion of other states and regions was justified. He was advocating for the invasion of neighboring states and areas through the use of skewed and even flawed information to convince the German people that annexation was a viable activity. To the uninitiated, the concept of "geopolitics" provided a reason for incorporating any part of the globe that contained something the German society wanted or needed into the German territorial expanse.

Meanwhile, in the years preceding World War II, Mackinder was asked his thoughts on the philosophy of his would-be disciple, Haushofer, as the General put the German interpretation of Mackinder's geopolitical ideal into policy.

As is often the case in international politics, a seemingly innocuous theory can be used for ill gain. In this case, the Makinder notion of collectivizing regions to counter a larger hypothetical entity was twisted and manipulated when utilized for political purposes. The Nazis, for example, abutted what was then Czechoslovakia on either side. Even though this country was an internationally-recognized sovereign state, Haushofer was able to seemingly rationalize annexing the Sudetenland to the Nazi leadership who, in turn, acted almost dumbfounded about why they had not yet taken over that region.

Then again, the broad strokes that attempt to define the concept of geopolitics may be the primary reason for misinterpretations (both inadvertent and sinister) of this theory. These misunderstandings, if unchecked, may contribute to flawed or even dangerous foreign policy development. Still, there are some undeniable truths contained within the overarching notion of geopolitics; elements that may play a positive role in creating effective foreign policy in the modern world. This paper takes a closer look at the concept of geopolitics and its role, both real and perceived, in the 20th and 21st century global environment.

Geopolitics, Defined & Redefined

As the illustration of Karl Haushofer's interpretation of the theory suggests, the idea of geopolitics can be used to justify a wide range of foreign policy actions. Geopolitics, after all, is a broad-based term subject to a multitude of political, academic and individual interpretations. Simply defined, geopolitics is the formulation of policy based on external environmental factors. In terms of international relations, geopolitics takes on a characteristic not dissimilar from pure realism — a nation will seek to maximize the assets it needs in order to advance itself in the international community, and if it views any element (whether tangible or intangible) evident in an extraterritorial environment to be of value or a threat to its stability, it will work towards involving itself in that environment.

On its surface, this definition does appear ominous. In truth, throughout human history, this negative connotation has come to bear many times. The myriad "empires" that have cropped up on virtually every continent provide evidence of this point. The Greek, Roman, and Ottoman Empires are examples as are the countless "colonial" entities that hailed from Europe until the early 20th century. Most often, these political entities both expanded and declined with violence and war. As such, linking national interest and external resources and environments does create the potential for conflict.

Still, the hegemonic conflicts that have littered human history under the flag of geopolitics (or at least loose interpretations of that term) are offset by the benefits of appreciating a geopolitical doctrine. In truth, the idea of a world in which interests and needs eschew geographic borders is reflective of the liberal tenets offered by President Woodrow Wilson after the first World War: "In regard to these essential rectifications of wrong and assertions of right we feel ourselves to be intimate partners of all the governments and peoples associated together against the Imperialists. We cannot be separated in interest or divided in purpose" (Brigham Young University, 2007).

Wilson's iconic words are reflective of the importance of geopolitics to the global community. After all, the concepts of international political relations and international business are predicated on the notion that few global powers or business entities are totally self-subsistent. Similarly, targeted partners in geopolitics likely see opportunities not for conflict but for symbiotic relationship-building. This paper next looks at these two arenas and the ways in which geopolitics has become an integral contributor.

Geopolitics & Political Relations

As stated earlier, in an era in which globalization is the norm, geopolitical (which is to say, external policy that is based on geographical need) relations are a necessity for most political institutions. A lack of political territoriality that is suggested by a fundamentalist view of geopolitics gives way to intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), international treaties, security relationships and mutual cooperation institutions. Examples include NATO, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), OPEC, the International Monetary Fund and the World Health Organization. Each of these organizations and institutions have proven able to withstand the test of time and, more importantly, the demands of an ever-changing global climate.

Still, one cannot paint a picture of the international community as wholly symbiotic and at peace. Even President Wilson viewed the emerging post-World War I international environment, which was weary from hegemonic conflict, with respect to the competitive nature of the interstate system. After all, geopolitics stems from the development of state policy with respect to extra-territorial conditions. When multiple states see external resources of value to their own infrastructures, competitiveness and even territoriality can arise, fostering conflict. Some political scientists see the next phase in world order, with geopolitics as the driving force, as formed from a series of concentric spheres of influence, clearly defined by territoriality (Chaturvedi & Painter, 2007).

Cyprus

Perhaps one of the most glaring examples of the conflicts that can arise as result of geopolitics in the modern international regime is the situation that exists in Cyprus. The small Mediterranean island republic has been, since its independence in 1960, at the center of a tug-of-war between Turkey and Greece. Its value to both is clear — throughout history, its geographic location at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea could serve as a gateway to Asian or European territory, and its nearby oil reserves only add to its strategic and economic worth. It also contains an element of ethnic solidarity, one that has created significant tensions in the region that have yet to be alleviated. Its population is split between ethnic Greek Cypriots, who in a de facto sense, represent the administrative government, and minority Turkish Cypriots, whose self-ruled government is confined to the northeast territory. Greek and Turkish infiltration of the island, which has been ongoing since the island was divided, has further inflamed the populace, and while there is a United Nations peacekeeping force in Cyprus (UNFICYP), the "two countries in one" have yet to reconcile. Adding fuel to the fire is the fact that, with the strong encouragement of the Greek government, Cyprus was admitted into the European Union (EU) in 2004, in spite of Turkish opposition (Turkey is not a member of the EU). While the EU had previously indicated that it would only admit Cyprus when its issues have been resolved, the island became part of that organization in the late 1990s without resolution (Boedeltje, 2007). With Greece and Turkey asserting their geopolitical influence on the island nation, the tug of war continues, though the two countries have made diplomatic strides since the beginning of the twenty-first century.

Non-Governmental Associations

Not all political institutions are created on the national governmental stage. Some sub-national (or non-governmental) organizations, associations and subgroups gel based on common need, but may not look to their national governmental authorities to sanction their cross-border networks. Many organizations have established linkages with groups of similar interests without regard to official government policy. An example can be found in the countries closest to the Arctic Circle. Indigenous peoples from countries like Norway and the other Scandinavian states, Russia, Greenland and Canada all represent relative minorities in their respective nations. However, since the late 1980s, these various groups have reached across borders to develop linkages with and even activate peoples of the same ethnicity. In one case, a Norwegian tribe of indigenous peoples, in an attempt to halt the utilization of a major river, reached out to peers in a neighboring country to help take up the cause. While the effort fell short, the activation of this tribe gave rise to a sentiment of self-determination and identity that was not present previously (Heininen, 2004).

Geopolitics & Economics

Arguably, the most important component of economics is at its core: The relationship between supply and demand. On the demand side are the consumers eager to spend their money on goods and services made available by supply-side entities. Both of these components operate within an economic system (such as a state or country). The latter of these two integral elements, supply, is rendered somewhat nebulous when taken out of theoretical frameworks and applied in a 21st century international political economy. In most cases, supply is not a singular mechanism that can on its own meet the needs of the consumers within that system. Rather, it relies on external resources and networks to assist in meeting those needs.

As is the case in international political relations, geopolitics has been known to generate conflicts when applied to international economic relations. Colonial European powers went abroad not necessarily in search of equitable trade relations (few territories and countries in the New World could at the time offer much beyond natural resources without heavy Colonial investment). Rather, they were addressing economic interests by pursuing development of those resources they needed. Of course, the inequities of these economic relationships often left the underdeveloped nation at a perpetual disadvantage, while the Colonial power used such resources for its own power centralization. Such imbalances inevitably led to revolt, not just in the case of 18th Century America, but as far forward as the late 20th Century.

Energy & International Outreach

Still, it is an undeniable fact that the wealthiest countries will still need to satisfy their needs by investing heavily in developing countries. Nowhere else in the current economic environment is this statement more true than it is concerning the business of energy. The United States, for example, produces about 6.5 million barrels of crude oil per day, but the country consumes nearly 19 million barrels per day (US Energy Information Association, 2012, 2013). In Europe, the same situation exists: Only a handful of the European Union's (EU) twenty-eight countries produces crude oil, but with production down, the EU states depend on foreign imports at a rate of 85 percent (Eurostat, 2013).

With a lack of substantive domestic oil production representing a sort of "Achilles Heel" for otherwise industrialized Western countries, strong linkages are needed with oil-producing nations, particularly those who do not belong to the major oil conglomerate, OPEC. Many of these oil-rich countries are in virtually every other capacity underdeveloped, politically unstable and economically anemic. In the former Soviet country of Tajikistan, for example, an effort is ongoing to woo Western countries and others to take advantage of its oil resources (and the means to transport them via pipeline), which have largely been unused since a devastating civil war took place in that country in the early 1990s. In 2010, an oil pipeline was completed running from Tajikistan to China through Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. China has a shown a great interest in exploiting the oil and gas reserves in Turkmenistan. The potential benefits are self-explanatory — as-yet under-utilized oil and natural gas reserves in a relatively unknown area. Of course, there are risks involved, as Tajikistan is one of the world's poorest countries, with spotty security (Business Monitor International, 2006; Lee, 2013). Nevertheless, the Tajik government, and likely other countries with similar resources and shortcomings, is forging ahead with its outreach program.

As this case demonstrates, geopolitics drives the Tajik government as well as the US, EU, Chinese and other governments willing to invest in that country's energy resource potentials. In a best-case scenario, such links are well-worth the risks.

Conclusion

Karl Haushofer's misinterpretation of Halford MacKinder's views of the pre-World War I environment was certainly not the only instance in which Nazi leaders used an innocuous concept to further their militaristic and totalitarian agenda. Many historical tenets and ideals were twisted to aid Hitler's propaganda machine. In this case, the Nazis used the idea that a decades-old theory, which stated that Britain's empire could be countermanded if a nation (or group thereof) were to empower the European and Asian landscape, as justification for expanding its own empire.

Still, the fact that Haushofer could reshape MacKinder's notion of geopolitics (a term MacKinder himself was surprised was attributed to him) suggests the flexibility with which the term can be employed. After all, at its most fundamental levels, geopolitics is broad-based and therefore subject to interpretation.

Benefits

In some situations, geopolitics creates positive benefits for the participating parties. As demonstrated in this paper, policy that is deployed to address externally-based interests has created the International Monetary Fund and the US Agency for International Development, both of which satisfy domestic needs (namely, laying the groundwork for stronger interstate political and economic relations) while serving the more noble practice of assisting developing nations. It has also given rise to one of the strongest security alliances in modern human history in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and a critical organization dedicated to researching and preventing the spread of disease and other public health threats, the World Health Organization. By nature of its apolitical fundamentals, geopolitics also has given empowerment to individuals who otherwise do not have a voice in their own country. Put simply, this concept potentially presents a number of benefits to the field of international relations, both on an inter-governmental level and a non-governmental level.

Conflicts

As the case of Haushofer clearly illustrates, geopolitics can also foment international and domestic conflict. Turkey and Greece, as the example shown in this paper illustrates, remain at odds over influence on the sovereign island state of Cyprus. The country's geography, coupled with the presence of nearby oil, has led the two larger countries to military confrontation on more than one occasion, and has left the United Nations and the European Union in a geopolitical conundrum of its own — seeking a resolution to a tense regional conflict that could potentially destabilize a wider area and ultimately impact the interests of the EU, NATO, the Middle East and the former Soviet states. As this example demonstrates, geopolitics can prove dangerous when interested parties find themselves competing for the same resources in a particular region.

Economic Implications

As this paper has offered, geopolitics does not necessarily encompass international political relations. Policy that is derived from externally-based factors also has economic implications. Some of these permutations are positive in nature. The potential benefits of accepting the influence of a foreign power by a smaller or less-developed nation may be enormous. For a country like landlocked Tajikistan, for example, which after the demise of the Soviet Union was left to deal with extreme poverty, crumbling infrastructure, weak governance, and at-best unreliable security measures, enticing countries such as the United States China seems worth the gamble. Conversely, for these countries, becoming invested in that obscure state's energy program is also risky, but in this age of steady concern over the price of energy and oil, the benefits may outweigh the risks.

Similar to the case of international relations, the geopolitical implications for economics can also create potential for conflict. The former Soviet Union, of which Tajikistan was once a part, drew heavily from its satellites, investing only in the elements of the economy from which it could see a return for Moscow. When it folded, the USSR left a group of nations, spanning from the Baltic states south to the Black Sea and eastward to the Chinese border, most with predominantly industrial economies, with no business partners except a financially decimated Russia. Many, such as Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia have looked to the European Union and even NATO as partners, much to the consternation of the Russian Republic. Meanwhile, Russia has been wary of letting go of its former components, even as they have become independent. The former leader of the Soviet Union has been implicated in the poisoning of a Georgian Prime Minister, and it maintained a military presence in the breakaway region of Azerbaijan until 2013. The reasons for its continued involvement (and at times interference) in the region are largely economic, as was largely the case when the Soviet Union began, and almost singularly geopolitical in nature.

Regardless of its genesis and the manipulations hostile forces have conducted of it in pursuit of their own ill gains, geopolitics does have its place in the international community. After all, the 21st century world is one in which no one nation can be completely self-sufficient — each country relies on at least a semblance of external relations and interstate business for its own survival. Furthermore, non-political entities, such as socially-motivated organizations and business groups, may also formulate policy based on the pursuit of foreign assets (or connectivity with foreign-based peers). In a world that relies on interstate linkages, geopolitics drives that contact.

Terms & Concepts

Geopolitical: The formulation of policy based on external or foreign-based assets or conditions.

Globalization: Trend in which nations and businesses establish and extend lines of communication and networks between themselves and foreign entities.

Inter-governmental Organizations: Institutions established and operated by national governments for the purposes of working with foreign governments.

International Relations: Practice of establishing and maintaining networks and lines of communications with other states.

Non-governmental Organizations: Institutions established to address concerns or interests without the involvement of a government agency.

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Suggested Reading

Bohr, A. (2004). Regionalism in central Asia. IInternational Affairs, 80I(3), 485-502. Retrieved January 1, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=13424567&site=ehost-live

Claval, P. (2006). The scale of political geography. IJournal of Economic and Social Geography, 97(3)I, 209-221. Retrieved January 1, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=21123940&site=ehost-live

Kelly, P. (2006). A critique of critical geopolitics. IGeopolitics, 11I(1), 24-53. Retrieved January 1, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=20063232&site=ehost-live