Global Politics: International Terrorism

Abstract

What is terrorism, and who is a terrorist? This paper looks at some of the sociological and political forces behind terrorist activity in the post-industrial world.

Overview

It was a scene that could have taken place anywhere in the modern world: buildings on fire, authorities in disorder, and private citizens fearful of repeat incidents. In order to prevent further attacks, the government began a campaign designed to uncover terrorist cells. The attackers in question were a loosely organized group of men without a country, whose raison d'etre was to strike a painful, brazen blow to the world's only superpower.

The attack described above was carried out more than 2,000 years ago, when pirates launched a terrorist attack on the Roman port of Ostia, destroying much of the Roman consular fleet and kidnapping a senator and his family.

For millennia, terrorism has been utilized as a tactic by disenfranchised individuals and groups seeking to strike against their adversaries. In the modern world, hundreds of groups have been accused of partaking in terrorist activity. These include the Basque separatist group ETA, the Irish Republican Army (IRA), the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), and al-Qaeda.

The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 were perpetrated by al-Qaeda, the amorphous Islamist extremist organization led by Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden. Among the reasons cited by the leaders of al-Qaeda for attacking New York City and Washington, DC, was the presence of Western militaries in the Middle East and American support for Israel. According to al-Qaeda’s ideology, the removal of Western forces from the Middle East is necessary in order to establish a regional caliphate, or Islamic state led by a supreme religious leader.

Beginning in the hours following the attacks, the administration of US President George W. Bush began undertaking an effort to eradicate al-Qaeda and its allies. This included a full-scale military invasion of Afghanistan, the aim of which was to topple the Taliban regime, which had allowed bin Laden and al-Qaeda safe haven as they planned terrorist operations worldwide before 2001. President Bush and officials in his administration made clear that the US war on terror would be waged against not only specific terrorist groups such as al-Qaeda, but against all states that aid and abet terrorist activity. Following its unveiling, critics of the war on terror suggested that it was a strategic mistake for the United States to declare war on a tactic of intimidation and not a specific organization.

What is terrorism, and who is a terrorist? The answer to these questions is complex. This paper will investigate the sociological and political forces than can motivate terrorist activity.

An Undefined Enemy. In 2006, the United Nations introduced the Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, designed to help the international community combat the threat posed by terrorist organization "in all its forms and manifestations." However, the strategy did not include a concrete definition of its target (United Nations, 2008). It is difficult to define terrorism in a clear manner. Title 22 of the United States Code paints a broad definition of terrorist acts as "premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience."

Domestic Terrorism. Terrorism, within the context of the definition above, is in a method of attack rather used by various organizations and institutions. There is no culture or society of terrorists, distinctive in appearance or bound by geography. This face represents one of the most challenging aspects of combating terrorism.

Terrorism can be motivated by religious extremism, nationalism, and political repression. Domestic terrorism involves disputes between organizations with a specific political agenda and the empowered political regime of a particular state. Militias in the Russian province of Chechnya mounted a struggle for independence following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. To that end, Chechen terrorists launched a number of attacks inside Russia, including the 2002 Moscow theater hostage crisis. While analysts suggest that the Russian military’s crackdown on separatists has significantly affected their efforts, Chechen rebels continue to undertake terrorist attacks. These include the 2010 bombing of the Moscow Metro and the 2011 bombing at the Domodedovo International Airport. Other examples of domestic terrorism include the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing in the United States.

International Terrorism. The term international terrorism refers to the activity of terrorist groups who move across borders to stage attacks or create cells in target countries who then perpetrate violence. Within the realm of Islamist extremism, many mujahideen, or guerilla fighters, receive training in remote camps (often in northern Africa) and then travel to countries like Iraq and Afghanistan to wage jihad.

Radical Views of Peaceful Faiths. Tenzin Gyatso, known around the world as the Dalai Lama, the highest figure in Tibetan Buddhism, once commented that his is a simple religion. "There is no need for temples, no need for complicated philosophy," he said. "Our own brain, our own heart is our temple; the philosophy is kindness" (Lewis, 2006). Nevertheless, Buddhist groups have perpetrated violent attacks in places such as Sri Lanka and Myanmar.

In Judaism, the concept of kindness and peace is also central. The word "shalom," which in Hebrew means "peace," is used as both a greeting and farewell. The etymology of the word, paints an important illustration of the importance of diversity in Jewish teachings — "shalom" is derived from "shalem," which means "whole." In other words, the word for "peace" comes from a respect of the oneness of God, regardless of the varying (and often opposing) dogmas of those who worship Him (Grenimann, 2006). However, many critics hold that Israel has perpetrated violence against Arab populations in the Occupied Territories. Additionally, Yigal Amir cited Jewish law as his reason for assassinating Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin in November 1995.

Critics of Islamist fundamentalism state that proponents of political violence act in direct opposition to major tenets of the Islam, including the centrality of peacefulness. The holy book of Islam, the Qu'ran, urges Muslims to defend themselves against attackers but in all other cases, use restraint. However, Islamist fundamentalists have waged violence throughout the world in the name of faith.

Tolerance & Nonviolence. Each of the world's major religions promote tolerance and nonviolence. Nevertheless, religion commonly surfaces as a catalyst for some to engage in terrorist activity. Often, it is not the basic tenets of faith that spur violence, but the application of religious doctrine concepts of morality and ethics as interpreted by those who claim to represent the faith.

The Have-Nots. Many individuals who participate in terrorism are poor and uneducated and come from impoverished backgrounds. In Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, religious zealots who coordinate terrorist violence often recruit young, uneducated people with the promise of rewards in the afterlife. Additionally, al-Qaeda training camps have existed in remote, lawless areas of the Middle East and north Africa.

However, the question of whether the poverty and lawlessness of these and other regions actually fosters terrorism or those who commit such acts is debated. A number of trainees at al-Qaeda camps have been found to be foreign-born, traveling from all over the world to receive indoctrination and training. These include individuals from Europe and the United States. Bin Laden himself came not from abject poverty, but was a member of a wealthy Saudi family.

Nevertheless, terrorists often feel oppressed, socially disadvantaged, or consider themselves the victims of discrimination. In short, terrorists often become terrorists because they feel disenfranchised.

Disenfranchisement occurs because of economic inequities, unbalanced political representation, and abject social stratification. Certain social classes, for example, may enjoy higher-paying jobs or the ability to live in areas that are more desirable. In many countries, specific ethnic groups are limited to certain enclaves and shunned from participation in the larger society. These groups may have unequal access to health care, social services, and jobs training. Put simply, these individuals see a clear disconnect with their own governments, or in international cases, see an inequity among societies that warrants a response (Simons & Tucker, 2007).

Much of the post-9/11 focus in pursuing international terrorism has been pursuing and eliminating key terrorist leaders as well as entering sovereign nations in order to defeat entrenched terrorists. The most notorious example of this was the American mission to eliminate Bin Laden at his hideout in Pakistan in May 2011. However, based on the fact that a major reason individuals become "freedom fighters" is due to their beliefs that their societies have alienated them, many critics hold that simply eliminating a few key leaders will not likely defeat the movement.

Viewpoints

Who Are Terrorists? Investigation of this question may provide an important tool in the fight against international terrorism. Evidence suggests that they are not typically impoverished, uneducated people who were brainwashed by religious or political rhetoric. Rather, they are often educated and in many cases financially solvent. Many studies show that they are recruited into terrorist organizations based on their level of disenfranchisement with their own political governance. Others feel a calling to act on behalf of those in another nation.

An effective response to terrorist organization development, based on this information, could be two-fold. On one front, political and religious rhetoric must be curtailed, although not through repressive measures. Rather, the populace, which is being targeted for recruitment, must have the information they need to question and even refute the violent policy ideals of terrorist organizations. On the second front, those who protest the activity (or lack thereof) of their governments must be allowed to do so. If they are kept out of the political process, they will often turn to the groups that will listen and allow them to act in the manner that they consider appropriate (Krueger, 2007). Hence, freedom of free assembly and religious practice, inherent in constitutional democracy, can help bridge the gulf between the mainstream residents and those who had been previously disenfranchised.

Conclusions. Devastating attacks such as the ones that occurred on September 11, 2001, have galvanized the international community to take action against all forms of international terrorism. As seen in this paper, terrorists vary in terms of ideology as well as capability. The "fronts" on which such a war takes place are as myriad as the diverse zones of conflict across the globe.

Still, there are major motivators behind those who commit acts of terrorism. Evidence shows that a high percentage of the population of terrorists are educated and come from positions of economic stability. Yet, they have assimilated the political and/or religious rhetoric that fuels terrorist organizations. The key, therefore, is addressing the issues that potentially drive individuals to join international terrorist groups.

This essay has outlined two major arenas in which terrorist fervor grows. The first is religion, which in fact is typically a misinterpreted (or manipulated) version of what is normally a peaceful faith. Its permeation throughout every facet of society makes addressing and toning down rhetoric on the issue a difficult undertaking. The second is just as vexing — helping reconnect the disenfranchised with mainstream society.

The international community should continue its efforts to understand how terrorism foments, in order to take the upper hand against such groups, not by striking against their individual leaders but against the concepts that have driven them to initiate such violent endeavors.

Terms & Concepts

Disenfranchisement: The result of inequity or a lack altogether of economic distribution, political representation or social stratification.

Jihad: Arabic term meaning "holy war."

Mujahideen: Arabic term for "holy warriors."

Nationalism: Excessive pride in one's country or home region.

Terrorism: Violence committed against nonspecific targets by subnational and/or clandestine agents.

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Suggested Reading

Applying ideological tactics in fighting terrorism. (2008). Foreign Affairs, 87. Retrieved May 25, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=31701225&site=ehost-live

Park, J., & Bali, V. (2017). International terrorism and the political survival of leaders. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 61(7), 1343–1370. doi:10.1177/0022002715613139. Retrieved February 28, 2018, from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=124139546&site=ehost-live&scope=site