Cartography

Cartography, or mapping, refers to the art and science of making maps and charts. Beyond the physical representation of a geographical area, it offers a glimpse into the lives and practices of ancient and modern civilizations. In its earliest forms, cartography was more artistic than factual. As the quality of maps and charts improved, they provided a more accurate representation of the world. Mapping dates back to the Babylonian period and ancient Rome, China, India, and Greece. Early cartographic tools included parchment and ink, the compass and telescope, and later, the printing press, which enabled mass production, and technologies to preserve maps. In the twenty-first century, satellites, aerial photography, and special software produce modern electronic technology maps that dynamically map Earth, planets, and the moon. Using geo information systems (GIS), modern cartographic visualization not only produces maps but can track products, follow the spread of a disease, and produce more information that is helpful in the twenty-first century.

Brief History

The earliest specimens of map making and the history of cartography date back to approximately 2300 BCE, when Babylonian maps were drawn on clay tablets. Historians believe that earlier efforts by mankind to communicate regarding the environment include the use of bark and skins to scratch out routes, locations, and hazards. Also represented on early maps are the location of dependable water springs, enemies, hunting trails, and dangers. American Indians painted star charts on elk skin to guide their night-time treks, while other early maps were painted on cloth, cut in stone, or sketched on skin, wood, or bone.

Continually evolving to meet the realities of new generations, cartography in the eighteenth century included more accurate information and details. While early mapmakers were primarily travelers and explorers, the new cartographers were scientists; their maps often included explanatory notes and efforts to demonstrate the reliability of their illustrations. Advanced instruments helped improve the accuracy of maps and the ability to preserve and store them, including the telescope, which raised the bar of astronomical observations, and the chronometer, quadrant, and vernier scale, which made it easier to compute longitude and depict other topographic features. The printing press enabled faster and mass production of maps, while lithographic and photochemical processes helped preserve maps by resisting moisture, wear, and tear.

With the advent of World Wars I and II, the military became increasingly interested in maps. Domestic mapping tasks—first assigned to civilian organizations such as the US Geological Survey, Britain’s Ordnance Survey, and France’s Institut Geographique National—were handed to the US Army Topographic Command, the Navy’s Oceanographic Office, and the Air Force’s Aeronautical Chart Service. In France, the Carte géométrique de la France was an important 1748 national survey resulting in a new map of the country, while Great Britain’s admiralty sponsored numerous charting developments and navigation facility improvements.

During and after the war years, areas of unmapped parts of the Earth were explored by the US Air Force, giving rise to the World Aeronautical Charts used by many countries for basic data. Military mapping also resulted in the establishment of common symbols, scales, and formats shared among ally country members. Cooperation among countries also manifested in exchange of data for aeronautical charting and hydrographic surveys. After World War II, the United Nations offered advisory mapping assistance to countries interested in planning roads, railroads, and other economic development programs.

Overview

Notable cartography achievements during the 1700s and 1800s included: charts for prevailing winds, currents, and tides; Edmond Halley’s oceanography magnetic chart; the proposal that the prime meridian for longitude should pass through Greenwich. In 1891, the first international map of the world was proposed by the International Geographical Congress. Inherent challenges in the construction of world maps include projection or the distortion of the Earth’s surface as well as the global knowledge required to produce them. As a result, world maps tend to have a specific focus, such as political world maps emphasizing human settlement and territorial boundaries and physical world maps highlighting geographic features such as soil type, land use, and mountains. Choropleth maps contrast differences between regions via color hue and intensity, while geological maps depict fault lines, underlying rock characteristics, and subsurface structures.

Cartography symbols determine how information on a map is coded to convey information to readers. Every map has a legend or key that explains its pictorial symbols, some of which are universal and some of which are specific to a certain type of map. Map color schemes are also symbols, including the darkness or intensity of a color. Other map symbols include the bar scale, denoting the relationship between map measurements and real distances, a compass rose or orienting north arrow, and an overview map providing a global context for the primary map. A map scale is typically expressed as a fraction or proportion and refers to the size of an object on the map compared to its actual size on the ground.

In general, maps are created from the results of field surveys or from the processing of geographic, economic, and statistical data. The purpose of the map being drafted is established first, followed by its content, classification, scale, features, and methods of representation. Graphic preparation of the actual map includes construction of a cartographic grid, transfer of the content sources, generalization, addition of cartographic symbols, map editing, and processes to prepare the map for publication and printing.

In the twenty-first century, cartographers use satellite or aerial photography to achieve greater accuracy and to create dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated and stored digitally, such as Google Earth. Governed by the principles of photogrammetry, satellite photography, GIS, and special illustration software also map details of the moon, planets, and their satellites. Additional cartography techniques include digital mapping, the process of collecting, compiling, and formatting data into a virtual image. The technology provides accurate representations as well as calculation of distances and depiction of major routes and other points of interest. The best-known example of digital mapping is the Global Positioning System or GPS.

Cartographic visualization utilizes digital cartography, computer graphics, animation, cartographic holograms, and 3-D models to enhance the quality of visual representations in real time and to increase understanding of objects in their space.

Bibliography

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